Further information: Rechargeable electricity storage system

A rechargeable battery, also known as a storage battery, is a group of two or more secondary cells. A rechargeable energy storage system or RESS is a system that stores Energy for delivery of electric energy and which is rechargeable generally in An electrochemical cell is a device used for generating an Electromotive force ( Voltage) and current from chemical reactions. These batteries can be restored to full charge by the application of electrical energy. In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy Electric energy is the potential energy associated with the conservative Coulomb forces between Charged particles contained within a system, where In other words, they are electrochemical cells in which the electrochemical reaction that releases energy is readily reversible. An electrochemical cell is a device used for generating an Electromotive force ( Voltage) and current from chemical reactions. Electrochemistry is a branch of Chemistry that studies Chemical reactions which take place in a Solution at the interface of an electron conductor A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called Rechargeable electrochemical cells are therefore a type of accumulator. An accumulator is an apparatus by means of which Energy can be stored such as a rechargeable battery or a Hydraulic accumulator. They come in many different designs using different chemicals. Commonly used secondary cell chemistries are lead and sulfuric acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer). Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French Physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of Rechargeable battery. The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd and ˈnɑɪˌkæd "nye-cad" is a type of Rechargeable battery using Nickel oxide hydroxide A nickel-metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of Rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium ( Ni[[Cadmium Cd]] battery Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode Lithium-ion polymer batteries, polymer lithium ion, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (abbreviated Li-poly Li-Pol LiPo LIP PLI or LiP are

Rechargeable batteries can offer economic and environmental benefits when used instead of one-time-use disposable batteries. Most rechargeable battery technology has been adapted into the standard “AA”, “AAA”, “C”, “sub-C”, “D”, and “9-volt” (List of battery sizes) configurations that consumers are familiar with. This article refers to common battery types and sizes in household and light industrial use While the rechargeable versions of these types of cells have a higher up-front cost than disposable batteries, rechargeable batteries can be discharged and recharged many times. Similarly, while the metals and chemicals in rechargeable cells can be more toxic than those in disposeable batteries, disposeable batteries nevertheless do release toxins into landfills and other more sensitive parts of the environment. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as Some manufacturers of NiMH type rechargeable batteries claim a lifespan up to 3000 charge cycles for their batteries.

Contents 1 Usage and applications 2 Charging 2.1 Recharging electric vehicles 2.2 Reverse charging 3 Active components 3.1 Table of rechargeable battery technologies 3.2 Notes 3.3 Common Rechargeable Battery Types 3.4 Less common types 4 Recent developments 5 Alternatives 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

Usage and applications

Unlike nonrechargeable batteries (primary cells), secondary cells must be charged before use. A primary cell is any kind of Electrochemical cell in which the electrochemical reaction of interest is not reversible so used in Disposable Attempting to recharge nonrechargeable batteries has a small chance of causing a battery explosion. In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy

Some types of rechargeable batteries are susceptible to damage due to reverse charging if they are fully discharged; other types need to be fully discharged occasionally in order to maintain the capacity for deep discharge. See also Rechargeable electricity storage system A rechargeable battery, also known as a storage battery, is a group of two or more secondary Fully integrated battery chargers that optimize the charging current are available. A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or (rechargeable battery by forcing an Electric current through it

Rechargeable batteries currently are used for lower power applications such as automobile starters, portable consumer devices, tools, and uninterruptible power supplies. An uninterruptible power supply ( UPS) also known as a continuous power supply ( CPS) or a battery backup is a device which maintains a continuous Emerging applications in hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology to improve cost, reduce weight, and increase lifetime. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV is a Hybrid vehicle which combines a conventional propulsion system with a Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery Future applications are proposed to use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they would store baseline electric power for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of Photovoltaic modules which are in turn made of multiple interconnected Solar cells The cells convert

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association or NEMA is a U S. demand for rechargeables is growing twice as fast as demand for nonrechargeables. ^[1]

Charging

Further information: Battery charger

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or (rechargeable battery by forcing an Electric current through it Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. Electric current is the flow (movement of Electric charge. The SI unit of electric current is the Ampere. An electrical network is an interconnection of Electrical elements such as Resistors Inductors Capacitors Transmission lines Voltage The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead-acid cells. An electrolyte is any substance containing free Ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge An electrode is an Electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd and ˈnɑɪˌkæd "nye-cad" is a type of Rechargeable battery using Nickel oxide hydroxide Electrochemistry is a branch of Chemistry that studies Chemical reactions which take place in a Solution at the interface of an electron conductor Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French Physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of Rechargeable battery.

The reactions in lead-acid cells are illustrated in the following diagrams.

The half-cell reactions and overall cell reaction for the lead-acid system are as follows:

Positive electrode

Negative electrode

Overall reaction

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries mostly comes from household AC current/mains electricity using an adapter unit. Mains is the general-purpose Alternating current (AC Electric power supply (as in "I've connected the appliance to the mains" It can be wired or wireless. Wireless energy transfer or wireless power transmission is the process that takes place in any system where Electrical energy is transmitted from a power Charging backup batteries using off-peak energy paid for by on-peak excess electric power from residential solar panels exactly matches the critical peak shortage and nightly electric surplus. Energy demand management, also known as demand side management ( DSM) entails actions that influence the quantity or patterns of use of Energy consumed In the field of Photovoltaics, a photovoltaic module is a packaged interconnected assembly of photovoltaic cells also known as Solar cells An installation of This load-leveling function helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation. Peaking power plants, also known as peaker plants are Power plants that generally run only when there is a high demand known as Peak demand, for Electricity Charging from the 12-volt battery of a car is also possible. Human powered generators are commercially available. One can also use portable batteries to charge or to be used directly after recharging. Most battery chargers can take several hours to charge a battery (excepting Nano Titanate batteries). A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or (rechargeable battery by forcing an Electric current through it Most batteries can be charged in far less time than the most common simple battery chargers are capable of. Duracell and Rayovac now sell chargers that can charge AA- and AAA-size NiMH batteries in just 15 minutes; Energizer sells chargers that can additionally charge C/D-size and 9V NiMH batteries. Duracell is a brand of batteries manufactured by Procter and Gamble. Rayovac (formerly known as Ray-O-Vac until 1988 is a brand of batteries made by Spectrum Brands of Sandy Springs, Georgia A AA battery (double a or /ˈdʌbəl eɪ/ is a dry cell-type battery commonly used in portable Electronic devices A AAA battery (pronounced "triple A" is a dry cell-type battery commonly used in portable electronic devices Flow batteries don't need to be charged on place, because they can be charged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. A flow battery is a form of Rechargeable battery in which Electrolyte containing one or more dissolved electroactive species flows through a power cell / reactor Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC. This is Volts Per Cell, and refers to the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. The volt (symbol V) is the SI derived unit of electric Potential difference or Electromotive force. An electrochemical cell is a device used for generating an Electromotive force ( Voltage) and current from chemical reactions. For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2. 3 VPC requires a voltage of 15. 6 V across the battery's terminals.

Recharging electric vehicles

Main articles: Rechargeable electric vehicle and V2G

Recharging an electric vehicle using off-peak energy paid for by on-peak excess electric power from residential solar panels exactly matches the critical peak shortage and nightly electric surplus. The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery Vehicle-to-grid (V2G describes a system in which power can be sold to the electrical power grid by an electric-drive motor vehicle that is connected to the grid when it is not While electric vehicles can charge slowly at night, raising the nightly low electric use, solar panels can lower the daytime peak, flattening the daily usage curve and lowering the cost of electric power for all users.

Reverse charging

Reverse charging, which damages batteries, is when a rechargeable battery is recharged with its polarity reversed. Reverse charging can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most important being:

• When a battery is incorrectly inserted into a charger. A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or (rechargeable battery by forcing an Electric current through it
• When multiple batteries are used in series in a device. If two or more circuit components are connected end to end like a daisy chain it is said they are connected in series. When one battery completely discharges ahead of the rest, the other batteries in series may force the discharged battery to discharge to below zero voltage.

Active components

The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. An electrolyte is any substance containing free Ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium The positive and negative are made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state The sum of these potentials is the standard cell potential or voltage. Electrical tension (or voltage after its SI unit, the Volt) is the difference of electrical potential between two points of an electrical

In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the cathode and anode, respectively. A primary cell is any kind of Electrochemical cell in which the electrochemical reaction of interest is not reversible so used in Disposable A cathode is an Electrode through which (positive Electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device An anode is an Electrode through which Electric current flows into a polarized electrical device Although this convention is sometimes carried through to rechargeable systems—especially with lithium-ion cells, because of their origins in primary lithium cells—this practice can lead to confusion. Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative electrode.

Example: Nickel Metal Hydride

Nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) is the active component in the positive, while the negative is composed of hydrogen in the form of metal hydride. The electrolyte of this secondary cell is an aqueous form of potassium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide is the Inorganic compound with the formula K[[hydroxide OH]]

In the discharge process, the nickel oxyhydroxide is reduced to nickel hydroxide and the metal hydride is oxidized to an alloy. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has

Nickel-Metal Hydride

Location	Reactions	Voltage
Negative	MH + OH- → M + H2O + e-	0. 83
Positive	NiOOH + H2O + e- → Ni(OH)2 + OH-	0. 52
Overall	NiOOH + MH → Ni(OH)2 + M	1. 35

Table of rechargeable battery technologies

Type	Voltagea	Energy densityb			Powerc	Effi. d	E/$e	Disch. f	Cyclesg	Lifeh
	(V)	(MJ/kg)	(Wh/kg)	(Wh/L)	(W/kg)	(%)	(Wh/$)	(%/mo)	(#)	(years)
Lead-acid	2. Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French Physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of Rechargeable battery. 1	0. 11-0. 14	30-40	60-75	180	70%-92%	5-8	3%-4%	500-800	3 (car battery), 20 (stationary)
VRLAi	2. A car battery is a type of Rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an Automobile. VRLA stands for valve regulated lead acid and is the designation for low maintenance lead-acid batteries, also called recombinant batteries 105
Ni-iron	1. The nickel-iron battery is a storage battery having a Nickel(III oxide-hydroxide Cathode and an iron Anode, with an electrolyte of Potassium 2	0. 18	50		100	65%	5-7. 3[2]	20%-40%
Ni-cadmium	1. The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd and ˈnɑɪˌkæd "nye-cad" is a type of Rechargeable battery using Nickel oxide hydroxide 2	0. 14-0. 22	40-60	50-150	150	70%-90%		20%	1500
NiMH	1. A nickel-metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of Rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium ( Ni[[Cadmium Cd]] battery 2	0. 11-0. 29	30-80	140-300	250-1000	66%	1. 37[1]	20%	1000
Ni-zinc	1. History Developed by an Irish chemist Dr James J Drumm (1897-1974 and installed in four 2-car Drumm Railcar sets between 1932 and 1948 for 7	0. 22	60	170			2-3. 3
Li ion	3. Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode 6	0. 58	160	270	1800	99. 9%	2. 8-5[3]	5%-10%	1200	2-3
Li polymer	3. Lithium-ion polymer batteries, polymer lithium ion, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (abbreviated Li-poly Li-Pol LiPo LIP PLI or LiP are 7	0. 47-0. 72	130-200	300	3000+	99. 8%	2. 8-5. 0			~0. 5
LiFePO4	3. The lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4 battery (also designated "LFP" is a type of Rechargeable battery, specifically a Lithium ion battery, which 25		80-120	170 [4]	1400		0. 7-1. 6		2000+[5]
Li sulfur[6]	2. 0		400[7]
Nano Titanate[8]	2. 3		90		4000+	87-95%r	0. 5-1. 0[9]		9000+	20+
Thin film Li	?			350	959	6000	?p[10]		40000
ZnBr
V redox	1. The zinc-bromine flow battery is a type of hybrid flow battery The vanadium redox (and redox flow battery in its present form (with sulfuric acid electrolytes was patented by the University of New South Wales in Australia in 1986. 4-1. 6		25-35[11]
NaS						89%-92%
Molten salt			70-110[12]		150-220		4. A sodium-sulfur battery is a type of battery constructed from Sodium (Na and Sulfur (S Molten salt batteries are a class of Primary cell and Secondary cell high temperature Electric battery that use Molten salts as an Electrolyte 54[13]		3000+	8+
Super iron
Silver zinc			130	240
Alkaline	1. The Super-iron battery is a new class of rechargeable electric battery. A silver oxide battery (IEC code S also known as a silver–zinc battery, is a Primary cell (although it may be used as a Secondary cell with an Rechargeable alkaline battery is a type of Alkaline battery that is Rechargeable. 5

Notes

For brevity, entries in the table had to be abbreviated. For a full description, please refer to the individual article about each type. Battery types for which there is no article yet are listed below.

• ^a Nominal cell voltage in V. Electrical tension (or voltage after its SI unit, the Volt) is the difference of electrical potential between two points of an electrical

• ^b Energy density = energy/weight or energy/size, given in three different units
• ^c Specific power = power/weight in W/kg
• ^d Charge/discharge efficiency in %
• ^e Energy/consumer price in W·h/US$ (approximately)
• ^j Safe Depth of Discharge to maintain lifecycles
• ^f Self-discharge rate in %/month
• ^g Cycle durability in number of cycles
• ^h Time durability in years
• ⁱ VRLA or recombinant includes gel batteries and absorbed glass mats
• ^k most prominent example for an application
• ^l "heavy" and "light" refer to low and high energy density, respectively. Energy density is the amount of Energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit Volume, or per unit Mass, depending on the context although Energy density is the amount of Energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit Volume, or per unit Mass, depending on the context although In Engineering, the term specific power can refer to power either per unit of Mass, Volume or Area, although power per unit of The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been VRLA stands for valve regulated lead acid and is the designation for low maintenance lead-acid batteries, also called recombinant batteries Of course, some batteries with high energy density can be quite heavy.
• ^p Pilot production
• ^q Can't be stored in discharged condition
• ^r Depending upon charge rate
• ^t temperature related problems
• ^x charge problems: If the battery discharges below a certain voltage it may never be able to hold a charge again, also if overcharged the battery becomes extremely unstable and may explode.
• ^y More than 97 percent of all battery lead is recycled http://www.batterycouncil.org/recycling.html
• ^z These batteries can be recharged nearly instantaneously by replacing the electrolyte.

Common Rechargeable Battery Types

Nickel Cadmium Battery (NiCd)

Created by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899 which was based on Thomas Edison's first alkaline battery. The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd and ˈnɑɪˌkæd "nye-cad" is a type of Rechargeable battery using Nickel oxide hydroxide Alkaline batteries are a type of disposable battery dependent upon the reaction between Zinc and Manganese (IV oxide ( Zn / Mn[[Oxygen Using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes, NiCd batteries have longer life cycles and hold electrical charge longer. Nickel(III oxide ( Ni2O3 has been referred to in the literature but is not a well characterised compound Cadmium (ˈkædmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Cd and Atomic number 48 An electrode is an Electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e However, their voltage potential difference are often less than that of Nickel-metal Hydride's.

Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery (NiMH)

First developed around 1980's. A nickel-metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of Rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium ( Ni[[Cadmium Cd]] battery The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of cadmium. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has An electrode is an Electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e Cadmium (ˈkædmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Cd and Atomic number 48 Even though NiMH batteries have higher voltage outputs, the batteries discharge quicker and have a limited service life compared to NiCd.

Lithium-ion Battery

The technology behind Lithium-ion battery has not yet fully reached maturity. Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode However, the batteries are the type of choice in many consumer electronics and have one of the best energy-to-mass ratios, no memory effect, and a slow loss of charge when not in use. Energy density is the amount of Energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit Volume, or per unit Mass, depending on the context although Memory effect, also known as lazy battery effect or battery memory, is an effect observed in nickel cadmium Rechargeable batteries that causes them to Self-discharge is a phenomenon in batteries in which internal chemical reactions reduce the stored charge of the battery without any connection between the electrodes The popularity of Lithium-ion has spread as their technology continues to improve.

Less common types

Lithium sulfur battery

A new battery chemistry developed by Sion Power^[14] since 1994. Claims superior energy to weight than current lithium technologies on the market. Also lower material cost may help this product reach the mass market. ^[15] Not to be confused with lithium sulfur dioxide (Li-SO₂) batteries which explode when recharged. Lithium batteries are not to be confused with lithium-ion batteries which are high energy-density rechargeable batteries Lithium batteries are

Thin film lithium battery

An emerging refinement of the lithium ion technology by Excellatron. ^[16] The developers claim a very large increase in recharge cycles, around 40,000 cycles. Higher charge and discharge rates. At least 5C charge rate. Sustained 60C discharge, and 1000C peak discharge rate. And also a significant increase in specific energy, and energy density. ^[17]

Smart battery

A smart battery has the voltage monitoring circuit built inside. See also Smart battery system. Smart Battery System or SBS is a specification for determining accurate battery readings

Carbon foam-based lead acid battery

Firefly Energy has developed a carbon foam-based lead acid battery with a reported energy density of 30-40% more than their original 38 W·h/kg^[18], with long life and very high power density.

Recent developments

In 2007, assistant professor Yi Cui and colleagues at Stanford University's Department of Materials Science and Engineering discovered that using silicon nanowires gave rechargeable lithium ion batteries 10 times more charge. Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly known as Stanford University or simply Stanford, is a private Research university located in Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly known as Stanford University or simply Stanford, is a private Research university located in Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 A nanowire is a wire of diameter of the order of a nanometer (10−9 meters Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode ^[19][20]

Alternatives

Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For uses like portable radios and flashlights, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork mechanisms or dynamos which are cranked by the user to provide power. A clockwork radio or windup radio is a radio that is powered by human muscle power rather than batteries or the Electrical grid. A flashlight (also called an electric torch or torch) is a portable electric spotlight which emits light from a small incandescent Lightbulb In Electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts Mechanical energy to Electrical energy, generally using Electromagnetic For transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and laboratories, Flywheel energy storage systems store energy in a spinning rotor for reconversion to electric power when needed; such systems may be used to provide large pulses of power that would otherwise be objectionable on a common electical grid. An uninterruptible power supply ( UPS) also known as a continuous power supply ( CPS) or a battery backup is a device which maintains a continuous Flywheel Energy Storage (FES works by accelerating a Rotor ( Flywheel) to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as Rotational energy

A future development could be Ultracapacitors for transportation, using a large capacitor to store energy instead of the rechargeable battery banks used in hybrid vehicles. Electric double-layer capacitors, also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer capacitors ( EDLCs) or ultracapacitors A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to propel the vehicle One drawback to capacitors compared with batteries is that the terminal voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25% of its initial energy left in it will have one-half of its initial voltage. Battery systems tend to have a terminal voltage that does not decline rapidly until nearly exhausted. This characteristic complicates the design of power electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However, there are potential benefits in cycle efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with recharageble systems.

See also

• Battery pack
• Battery electric vehicle
• Battery recycling
• Deep cycle automotive battery manufacturers
• Fuel cell
• List of battery sizes
• List of electric vehicle battery manufacturers
• Mercury-containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act
• Nanowire battery
• Rechargeable energy storage system
• Trickle charging
• Ultracapacitor
• Wireless energy transfer

References

External links

• High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires
• Scientific American - How Rechargeable Batteries Work
• Battery University – on-line resource that provides practical battery knowledge for engineers, educators, students and battery users alike.

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