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Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for reasons for beliefs, conclusions, actions or feelings. Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking [1] Humans have the ability to engage in reasoning about their own reasoning using introspection. Introspection is the self-observation and reporting of Conscious inner Thoughts desires and Sensations It is a conscious mental and usually Different forms of such reflection on reasoning occur in different fields.

In philosophy, the study of reasoning typically focuses on what makes reasoning efficient or inefficient, appropriate or inappropriate, good or bad. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Philosophers do this by either examining the form or structure of the reasoning within arguments, or by considering the broader methods used to reach particular goals of reasoning. Psychologists and cognitive scientists, in contrast, tend to study how people reason, which brain processes are engaged, and how the reasoning is influenced by the structure of the brain. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior Specific forms of reasoning are also studied by mathematicians and lawyers. A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of Mathematics.

Contents

History of reasoning

It is likely that humans have used reasoning to work out what they should believe or do for a very long time indeed. However, some researchers have tried to determine when, in the history of human development, humans moved from using myths to describe the world to attempting to reason about the world, and when humans first began to reason about their own reasoning.

Babylonian reasoning

In Mesopotamia, Esagil-kin-apli's medical Diagnostic Handbook written in the 11th century BC was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding In traditional Logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject [2]

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems, which was an important contribution to logic and the philosophy of science. Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. [3] Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Greek thought. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital [4]

Greek reasoning

The works of Homer, written in the eighth century BC, contain mythic stories that use gods to explain the formation of the world. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the However, only two centuries later, late in the sixth century BC, Xenophanes of Colophon began to question the Homeric accounts of the creation of nature and the gods. Xenophanes of Colophon ( Greek ( 570 – 480 BC was a Greek Philosopher, Poet, and social and religious Critic. He wrote:

According to David Furley, "the basis of [Xenophanes'] criticism appears to have been that he saw an inconsistency between the concept of god as something different from man, and the stories told about the gods, which made them behave as men do. "[5] In the same period, other Greek thinkers began to develop theories about the nature of the world that suggest that they believed that there were regularities in nature and that humans could use reasoning to develop a consistent story about the nature of the world. Thales of Miletus, c. Thales of Miletus According to Bertrand Russell, "Philosophy begins with Thales 624 BC – c. 546 BC, proposed that all is water. Anaximenes of Miletus, c. 585 BC – c. 525 BC, claimed that air is the source of everything. [6]

Aristotle is, so far as we know, the first writer to give an extended, systematic treatment of the methods of human reasoning. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He identified two major methods of reasoning, analysis and synthesis. In the first, we try to understand an object by looking at its component parts. In the second, we try to understand a class of objects by looking at the common properties of each object in that class.

Aristotle developed what is known as syllogistic logic, which makes it possible to analyse reasoning in a way that ignores the content of the argument and focuses on the form or structure of the argument. A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of [7] In the Prior Analytics, Aristotle begins by pointing out that:

"[If] no pleasure is a good, neither will any good be a pleasure. Prior Analytics is Aristotle 's work on Deductive reasoning, part of his Organon, the instrument or manual of Logical "[8]

He then argues that this argument is an example of a rule of reasoning of the following form:

Premise: "A belongs to none of the Bs"
Conclusion: "B [does not] belong to any of the As". [9]

Aristotle points out that by understanding the reasoning involved in this type of argument, we can know that whatever the As and Bs are, we can reach the same conclusion about the relationship between them. This is a simple and straightforward argument, but it is a sign of an amazing leap in understanding and research into reason and was the beginning of the development of formal logic. Mathematical logic is a subfield of Logic and Mathematics with close connections to Computer science and Philosophical logic.

Indian reasoning

Main article: Indian logic

Two of the six Indian schools of thought deal with logic: Nyaya and Vaisheshika. The development of Indian logic can be said to date back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama (c Nyāya ( Sanskrit ni-āyá, literally "recursion" used in the sense of " Syllogism, inference" is the name given to one of the six orthodox Vaisheshika, or Vaiśeṣika, (Sanskrit वैशॆषिक) is one of the six Hindu schools of Philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems The Nyaya Sutras of Aksapada Gautama constitute the core texts of the Nyaya school, one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. The Nyāya Sūtras is an ancient Indian text on of Philosophy composed by Akṣapāda Gautama (also Gotama; c The Nyāya Sūtras is an ancient Indian text on of Philosophy composed by Akṣapāda Gautama (also Gotama; c A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical This realist school developed a rigid five-member schema of inference involving an initial premise, a reason, an example, an application and a conclusion. Contemporary philosophical realism is the belief in a Reality that is completely Ontologically independent of our conceptual schemes linguistic practices beliefs Inference is the act or process of deriving a Conclusion based solely on what one already knows The idealist Buddhist philosophy became the chief opponent to the Naiyayikas. In Western civilization, Idealism is the philosophy which maintains that the Ultimate nature of reality is ideal or based upon ideas values essences The so-called Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in Metaphysics, phenomenology, Ethics, and Epistemology. Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika "Middle Way" developed an analysis known as the "catuskoti" or tetralemma. Acharya Nāgārjuna ( Telugu: నాగార్జున (c 150 - 250 CE) was an Indian philosopher the founder of the Madhyamaka Madhyamaka ( Sanskrit: मध्यमक Madhyamaka,, Pinyin: Zhōngguānzōng; also known as Śunyavada) is a Buddhist The tetralemma ( catuskoti) is a figure that features prominently in Indian traditional logic This four-cornered argumentation systematically examined and rejected the affirmation of a proposition, its denial, the joint affirmation and denial, and finally, the rejection of its affirmation and denial. But it was with Dignaga and his successor Dharmakirti that Buddhist logic reached its height. Dignāga ( fl 5th century) was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic. Dharmakirti ( ca 7th century was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. Their analysis centered on the definition of necessary logical entailment, "vyapti", also known as invariable concomitance or pervasion. To this end a doctrine known as "apoha" or differentiation was developed. This involved what might be called inclusion and exclusion of defining properties. The difficulties involved in this enterprise, in part, stimulated the neo-scholastic school of Navya-Nyāya, which developed a formal analysis of inference in the 16th century. The Navya-Nyāya or Neo-Logical darśana (view system or school of Indian Philosophy was founded in the 13th century CE

Chinese reasoning

Main article: Logic in China

In China, a contemporary of Confucius, Mozi, "Master Mo", is credited with founding the Mohist school, whose canons dealt with issues relating to valid inference and the conditions of correct conclusions. In the History of logic, logic in China plays a particularly interesting role due to its length and relative isolation from the strong current of development Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher Mozi ( Lat as Micius, ca 470 BCE&ndashca 391 BCE was a Philosopher who lived in China during the Hundred Schools of Thought Mohism or Moism ( was a Chinese philosophy developed by the followers of Mozi (also referred to as Mo Di 470 &ndashc In particular, one of the schools that grew out of Mohism, the Logicians, are credited by some scholars for their early investigation of formal logic. The Logicians or School of Names (名家 Míngjiā; "School of names" was a Chinese philosophical school that grew out of Mohism Mathematical logic is a subfield of Logic and Mathematics with close connections to Computer science and Philosophical logic. Unfortunately, due to the harsh rule of Legalism in the subsequent Qin Dynasty, this line of investigation disappeared in China until the introduction of Indian philosophy by Buddhists. In Chinese history, Legalism ( was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (the other Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices

Islamic reasoning

Main article: Logic in Islamic philosophy

For a time after Muhammad's death, Islamic law placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to logic in Kalam, but this approach was later influenced by ideas from Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy with the rise of the Mu'tazili philosophers, who highly valued Aristotle's Organon. Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. The works of Hellenistic-influenced Islamic philosophers were crucial in the reception of Aristotelian logic in medieval Europe, along with the commentaries on the Organon by Averroes. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European The works of al-Farabi, Avicenna, al-Ghazali and other Muslim logicians who often criticized and corrected Aristotelian logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of medieval European logic. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died

Islamic logic not only included the study of formal patterns of inference and their validity but also elements of the philosophy of language and elements of epistemology and metaphysics. Inference is the act or process of deriving a Conclusion based solely on what one already knows Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Due to disputes with Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech. In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of terms, propositions and syllogisms. They considered the syllogism to be the form to which all rational argumentation could be reduced, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered as a syllogistic art in some fashion by many major Islamic logicians.

Important developments made by Muslim logicians included the development of "Avicennian logic" as a replacement of Aristotelian logic. Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. Avicenna's system of logic was responsible for the introduction of hypothetical syllogism,[10] temporal modal logic,[11][12] and inductive logic. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In Logic, a hypothetical syllogism has two uses In Propositional logic it expresses a rule of inference while in the History of logic, it is a short-hand In Logic, the term temporal logic is used to describe any system of rules and symbolism for representing and reasoning about propositions qualified in terms of Time A modal logic is any system of formal logic that attempts to deal with modalities. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed [13][14] Other important developments in Islamic philosophy include the development of a strict science of citation, the isnad or "backing", and the development of a scientific method of open inquiry to disprove claims, the ijtihad, which could be generally applied to many types of questions. Scientific Citation is the Process by which Conclusions of previous Scientists are used to justify experimental Procedures Apparatus A Hadith was originally just an Arabic story As the stories began to be used formally it became common to provide their chain of transmitters (or sanad سند plural Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources

Reasoning methods and argumentation

One approach to the study of reasoning is to identify various forms of reasoning that may be used to support or justify conclusions. The main division between forms of reasoning that is made in philosophy is between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is Reasoning which uses deductive Arguments to move from given statements ( Premises to Conclusions which must be true if the Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Formal logic has been described as 'the science of deduction'. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. [15] The study of inductive reasoning is generally carried out within the field known as informal logic or critical thinking. Informal logic (or occasionally non-formal logic) is the study of arguments as presented in ordinary language as contrasted with the presentations of arguments in Critical thinking consists of mental processes of discernment, Analysis and Evaluation.

Deductive reasoning

Main article: Deductive reasoning

Deductive arguments are intended to have reasoning that is valid. Deductive reasoning is Reasoning which uses deductive Arguments to move from given statements ( Premises to Conclusions which must be true if the The term validity (also called logical truth, analytic truth, or necessary truth) as it occurs in Logic refers generally to a property of Reasoning in an argument is valid if the argument's conclusion must be true when the premises (the reasons given to support that conclusion) are true. One classic example of deductive reasoning is that found in syllogisms like the following:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal. A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

The reasoning in this argument is valid, because there is no way in which the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3, be false.

Validity is a property of the reasoning in the argument, not a property of the premises in the argument or the argument as a whole. In fact, the truth or falsity of the premises and the conclusion is irrelevant to the validity of the reasoning in the argument. The following argument, with a false premise and a false conclusion, is also valid, (it has the form of reasoning known as modus ponens). The form or logical form of an argument is the representation of its sentences using the Formal grammar and symbolism of a Logical system to display In Classical logic, modus ponendo ponens ( Latin: mode that affirms by affirming; often abbreviated to MP or modus ponens) is a

Premise 1: If green is a colour, then grass poisons cows.
Premise 2: Green is a colour.
Conclusion: Grass poisons cows.

Again, if the premises in this argument were true, the reasoning is such that the conclusion would also have to be true.

In a deductive argument with valid reasoning the conclusion contains no more information than is contained in the premises. Therefore, deductive reasoning does not increase one's knowledge base, and so is said to be non-ampliative.

Within the field of formal logic, a variety of different forms of deductive reasoning have been developed. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. These involve abstract reasoning using symbols, logical operators and a set of rules that specify what processes may be followed to arrive at a conclusion. Table of logic symbolsIn Logic, two sentences (either in a formal language or a natural language may be joined by means of a logical connective to form a compound sentence These forms of reasoning include Aristotelian logic, also known as syllogistic logic, propositional logic, predicate logic, and modal logic. The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. This is a technical mathematical article about the area of mathematical logic variously known as "propositional calculus" or "propositional logic" In Mathematical logic, predicate logic is the generic term for symbolic Formal systems like First-order logic, Second-order logic, Many-sorted A modal logic is any system of formal logic that attempts to deal with modalities.

Inductive reasoning

Main article: Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning contrasts strongly with deductive reasoning. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Even in the best, or strongest, cases of inductive reasoning, the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Instead, the conclusion of an inductive argument follows with some degree of probability. Probability is the likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen Relatedly, the conclusion of an inductive argument contains more information than is already contained in the premises. Thus, this method of reasoning is ampliative.

A classical example of inductive reasoning comes from the empiricist David Hume:

Premise: The sun has risen in the east every morning up until now. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy
Conclusion: The sun will also rise in the east tomorrow.

Abductive reasoning

Main article: abductive reasoning

Abductive reasoning, or argument to the best explanation often involves both inductive and deductive arguments. Abduction, or inference to the best explanation, is a method of Reasoning in which one chooses the hypothesis that would if true best explain the relevant evidence Abduction, or inference to the best explanation, is a method of Reasoning in which one chooses the hypothesis that would if true best explain the relevant evidence However, as the conclusion in an abductive argument does not follow with certainty from its premises it is best thought of as a form of inductive reasoning. What separates abduction from the other forms of reasoning is an attempt to favor one conclusion above others, by attempting to falsify alternative explanations or by demonstrating the likelihood of the favored conclusion, given a set of more or less disputable assumptions.

Argument from analogy

Argument from analogy is usually also a form of inductive reasoning. Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring Information from a particular subject (the analogue or source to another particular subject (the target and An argument from analogy has the following form:

A has characteristics x,y, and z
B has characteristics x and y
So, B has (or probably has) characteristic z

Reasoning by analogy goes from one particular thing, or category, to another particular thing, or category. As with other forms of inductive argument, even the best reasoning in an argument from analogy can only make the conclusion probable given the truth of the premises, not certain.

Analogical reasoning is very frequent in common sense, science, philosophy and the humanities, but sometimes it is accepted only as an auxiliary method. Common sense (or when used attributively as an Adjective, commonsense, common-sense, or commonsensical) based on a strict construction Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative A refined approach is case-based reasoning. Case-based reasoning (CBR broadly construed is the process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems For more information on inferences by analogy, see Juthe, 2005.

Fallacious reasoning

Main article: Logical fallacy

Flawed reasoning in arguments is known as fallacious reasoning. A fallacy is a component of an Argument which being demonstrably flawed in its Logic or form renders the argument invalid in whole A fallacy is a component of an Argument which being demonstrably flawed in its Logic or form renders the argument invalid in whole Reasoning within arguments can be bad because it commits either a formal fallacy or an informal fallacy. In philosophy, a formal fallacy or a logical fallacy is a pattern of reasoning which is always wrong An Informal fallacy is an argument whose stated premises fail to support their proposed conclusion

Formal fallacies

Main article: Formal fallacy

Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the argument. In philosophy, a formal fallacy or a logical fallacy is a pattern of reasoning which is always wrong The word 'formal' refers to this link to the form of the argument. An argument that contains a formal fallacy will always be invalid. Consider, for example, the following argument:

  1. If a drink is made with boiling water, it will be hot.
  2. This drink was not made with boiling water.
  3. This drink is not hot.

The reasoning in this argument is bad, because the antecedent (first part) of the conditional (the 'if. . . , then. . . ' statement) can be false without the consequent (second half) of the conditional being true. A consequent is the second half of a hypothetical Proposition. In this example, the drink could have been made with boiling milk, or heated in the microwave, and so be hot in spite of the truth of statement 2. This particular formal fallacy is known as denying the antecedent. Denying the antecedent, sometimes also called Inverse error, is a Formal fallacy, committed by reasoning in the form: If P, then

Informal fallacies

Main article: Informal fallacy

An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the content, rather than mere structure, of the argument. An Informal fallacy is an argument whose stated premises fail to support their proposed conclusion Reasoning that commits an informal fallacy often occurs in an argument that is invalid, that is, contains a formal fallacy. One example of such reasoning is a red herring argument. Ignoratio elenchi (also known as irrelevant conclusion or irrelevant thesis) is the Informal fallacy of presenting an argument that may in itself be

An argument can be valid, that is, contain no formal reasoning fallacies, and yet still contain an informal fallacy. The clearest examples of this occur when an argument contains circular reasoning, also known as begging the question. In Logic, begging the question has traditionally described a type of Logical fallacy (also called petitio principii) in which the proposition In Logic, begging the question has traditionally described a type of Logical fallacy (also called petitio principii) in which the proposition

Psychology

Scientific research into reasoning is carried out within the fields of psychology and cognitive science. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior Psychological research into reasoning falls into two general areas of research. First, the biological functioning of the brain is studied by neurophysiologists and neuropsychologists. Neurophysiology (from Greek grc νεῦρον neuron, "nerve" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors Research in this area includes research into the structure and function of normally functioning brains, and of damaged or otherwise unusual brains. Second, psychologists carry out research on reasoning behaviour. Such research may focus, for example, on how people perform on tests of reasoning, such as intelligence or I.Q. tests, or on how well people's reasoning matches ideals set by logic (see, for example, the Wason test). An Intelligence Quotient or IQ is a score derived from one of several different Standardized tests attempting to measure Intelligence. An Intelligence Quotient or IQ is a score derived from one of several different Standardized tests attempting to measure Intelligence. Devised in 1966 by Peter Cathcart Wason, the Wason selection task, one of the most famous tasks in the Psychology of reasoning, is a Logic puzzle [16] In addition to carrying out research into reasoning, some psychologists, for example, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists work to alter people's reasoning habits when they are unhelpful. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living

Cognitive science and artificial intelligence

Cognitive science sees reasoning by the analogy to a data processing, where relations between observed properties of reasoning are used in numerous models leading to evident logically correct conclusions in different circumstances. Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior The complexity and efficacy of reasoning is considered the critical indicator of cognitive intelligence. In general usage complexity often tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Therefore it is the inevitable component of cognitive decision-making. Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives

In artificial intelligence, philosophers and scientists study reasoning and machines, and consider such questions as whether a machine can properly be considered to reason or think, and, relatedly, what would count as a test for reasoning. (See, for example, the Turing test. The Turing test is a proposal for a test of a Machine 's ability to demonstrate intelligence )[17]

Legal reasoning

Legal reasoning is used when reflecting on the nature of existing laws or when reaching decisions about the relationship between laws and particular court cases.

Thorne McCarty did pioneering early work in the mechanization of legal reasoning for taxation using Micro Planner. Planner (often seen in publications as "PLANNER" although it is not an acronym is a Programming language designed by Carl Hewitt at MIT, and [18] More recent work on the formalization and mechanization of legal reasoning can be found in the proceedings of the International Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Law ( most recently at Stanford in June 2007).

Footnotes

  1. ^ Kirwin, Christopher. 1995. 'Reasoning'. In Ted Honderich (ed. ), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press: p. 748
  2. ^ H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
  3. ^ D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology , Styx Publications, ISBN 9056930362.
  4. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), p. 35-47 [43].
  5. ^ Furley, David. 2003. 'Rationality among the Greeks and Romans'. In The Gale Group, Dictionary of the history of ideas. University of Virginia Library. The University of Virginia (also called UVa, UVA, Mr Jefferson's University, or The University) is a highly selective public research [1]
  6. ^ Furley, David. 2003. 'Rationality among the Greeks and Romans'. In The Gale Group, Dictionary of the history of ideas. University of Virginia Library. The University of Virginia (also called UVa, UVA, Mr Jefferson's University, or The University) is a highly selective public research [2]
  7. ^ Aristotle. 350 B. C. Robin Smith (transl. ). 1989. Prior Analytics. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing.
  8. ^ Aristotle. 350 B. C. Robin Smith (transl. ). 1989. Prior Analytics. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing: A2:7
  9. ^ Aristotle. 350 B. C. Robin Smith (transl. ). 1989. Prior Analytics. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing: A2:14-26
  10. ^ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.
  11. ^ History of logic: Arabic logic, Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc
  12. ^ Dr. Lotfollah Nabavi, Sohrevardi's Theory of Decisive Necessity and kripke's QSS System, Journal of Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences.
  13. ^ Science and Muslim Scientists, Islam Herald.
  14. ^ Wael B. Hallaq (1993), Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians, p. 48. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198240430.
  15. ^ Jeffrey, Richard. 1991. Formal logic: its scope and limits, (3rd ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill:1.
  16. ^ Manktelow, K. I. 1999. Reasoning and Thinking (Cognitive Psychology: Modular Course. ). Hove, Sussex:Psychology Press
  17. ^ Copeland, Jack. B Jack Copeland (born 1950 is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. 1993. Artificial Intelligence:a philosophical introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
  18. ^ McCarty, L. Thorne. 1977. 'Reflections on TAXMAN: An Experiment on Artificial Intelligence and Legal Reasoning'. Harvard Law Review. Vol. 90, No. 5.

References

See also

Casuistry (ˈkæʒuːɨstri is an Applied ethics term referring to case-based Reasoning. A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of Critical thinking consists of mental processes of discernment, Analysis and Evaluation. Defeasible reasoning is the study of forms of Reasoning that while convincing are not as formal and rigorous as Deductive reasoning. Evidence in its broadest sense includes anything that is used to determine or demonstrate the Truth of an assertion Inference is the act or process of deriving a Conclusion based solely on what one already knows Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. A fallacy is a component of an Argument which being demonstrably flawed in its Logic or form renders the argument invalid in whole In Logic, three kinds of logical reasoning can be distinguished deduction, induction and abduction. In Philosophy, practical reason is the use of Reason to decide how to act. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Recognition-primed decision (RPD is a model of how people make quick effective decisions when faced with complex situations Retroduction is similar to induction, but it is predicated on known or assumed relationary rules and observations that contain at least one of the predicates or Speculative reason or pure reason is theoretical (or Logical deductive) thought (sometimes called theoretical reason as opposed to practical (active " What the Tortoise Said to Achilles " is a brief dialogue by Lewis Carroll which playfully problematises the foundations of Logic.

Dictionary

reasoning

-noun

  1. Action of the verb to reason.
  2. The deduction of inferences or interpretations from premises; abstract thought; ratiocination.

-verb

  1. Present participle of reason.
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