Racism, by its simplest definition, is discrimination based on racial group. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Notions of race based on Human genetic variation have replaced historical approaches such as Craniology with the advent of Human genetics in Human genetic variation is the natural variation in gene frequencies observed between the genomes of individuals or groups of humans The historical definition of race was an immutable and distinct type or Species, sharing distinct racial characteristics such as constitution temperament Race and health research is mostly from the United States. It has found both current and historical racial differences in the frequency treatments and availability of treatments The study of race and intelligence is a controversial field which seeks to determine whether or not human intellectual abilities vary between races The modern controversy Social interpretation of physical variation Incongruities of racial classifications Even as the idea of "race" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many Anti-miscegenation laws, also known as miscegenation laws, were laws that banned Interracial marriage and sometimes interracial sex between whites and members of other Racialism is an emphasis on race or racial considerations Racialism entails a belief in the existence and significance of racial categories but not necessarily in a Racial profiling is the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime or The United States is a racially diverse country There is an extensive history of race-based Slavery, the abolishment of it and its economic Brazil is a racially diverse and Multiracial country Intermarriage among different Ethnic groups has been part of the country's history Human evolution, or anthropogenesis, is the part of biological Evolution concerning the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct Species Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is This is a list of topics related to Racism: A Affirmative action Afrocentrism Anti-Arabism Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets People with racist beliefs might hate certain groups of people according to their race, or in the case of institutional racism, certain racial groups may be denied rights or benefits. Institutional Racism (or structural racism or systemic racism) refers to a form of Racism which occurs specifically in institutions such as public Racism typically starts with the assumption that there are taxonomic differences between different groups of people. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos According to the United Nations conventions, there is no distinction between the term racial discrimination and ethnic discrimination. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security
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Definitions
While the term racism usually denotes race-based prejudice, violence, discrimination, or oppression, the term can also have varying and hotly contested definitions. The word prejudice refers to prejudgment making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event Violence is the exertion of force so as to injure or abuse The word is used broadly to describe the destructive action of natural phenomena like Storms and Earthquakes Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Oppression is the act of using power to empower and/or privilege a group at the expense of disempowering marginalizing silencing and subordinating another group Racialism is a related term, sometimes intended to avoid these negative meanings. Racialism is an emphasis on race or racial considerations Racialism entails a belief in the existence and significance of racial categories but not necessarily in a According to the Oxford English Dictionary, racism is a belief or ideology that all members of each racial group possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race, especially to distinguish it as being either superior or inferior to another racial group or racial groups. The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English The Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines racism as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular racial group, and that it is also the prejudice based on such a belief. Webster's Dictionary is the name given to a common type of English language dictionary in the United States. The Macquarie Dictionary defines racism as: "the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others. The Macquarie Dictionary is a Dictionary of Australian English. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic "
Legal definition
According to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD is a United Nations convention. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled '[1]
This definition does not make any difference between prosecutions based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the ethnicity and race remains debatable among anthropologists. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of [2] According to British law, racial group means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin". [3]
Sociological definitions
Some sociologists have defined racism as a system of group privilege. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" In Portraits of White Racism David Wellman (1993) has defined racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities,” (Wellman 1993: x). Sociologists Noel Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as “. . . a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,” (Cazenave and Maddern 1999: 42). Sociologist and former American Sociological Association president Joe Feagin argues that the United States can be characterized as a "total racist society" because racism is used to organize every social institution (Feagin 2000, p. Joe R Feagin is a US Sociologist and social theorist who has conducted extensive research on racial and gender issues especially in regard to the United States The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 16).
More recently, Feagin has articulated a comprehensive theory of racial oppression in the U. S. in his book Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression (Routledge, 2006). Feagin examines how major institutions have been built upon racial oppression which was not an accident of history, but was created intentionally by white Americans. In Feagin's view, white Americans labored hard to create a system of racial oppression in the 17th century and have worked diligently to maintain the system ever since. While Feagin acknowledges that changes have occurred in this racist system over the centuries, he contends that key and fundamental elements have been reproduced over nearly four centuries, and that U. S. institutions today reflect the racialized hierarchy created in the 17th century. Today, as in the past, racial oppression is not just a surface-level feature of this society, but rather pervades, permeates, and interconnects all major social groups, networks, and institutions across the society. Feagin's definition stands in sharp contrast to psychological definitions that assume racism is an "attitude" or an irrational form of bigotry that exists apart from the organization of social structure.
Racial discrimination
Racial discrimination is treating people differently through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to race. Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders MTR, or Mass Transit Railway, is the Rapid transit Railway system in Hong Kong. Racial segregation policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers, including Dean Karlan and Marianne Bertrand, at the MIT and the University of Chicago found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States' long history of discrimination (i. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the e. Jim Crow laws, etc. The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enacted primarily but not exclusively in the Southern and border states of the United States between 1876 and 1965 )[4]
Institutional racism
- Further information: Institutional racism, State racism, Racial profiling, and Racism by country
Institutional racism (also known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Institutional Racism (or structural racism or systemic racism) refers to a form of Racism which occurs specifically in institutions such as public State racism is a Concept used by French Philosopher Michel Foucault to designate the reappropriation of the historical and political Discourse Racial profiling is the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime or The article describes the state of Race relations and Racism in a number of countries. Institutional Racism (or structural racism or systemic racism) refers to a form of Racism which occurs specifically in institutions such as public State racism is a Concept used by French Philosopher Michel Foucault to designate the reappropriation of the historical and political Discourse Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. Stokely Standiford Churchill Carmichael ( June 29, 1941 November 15, 1998) also known as Kwame Ture, was a Trinidadian He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin". [5]
Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples. Maulana Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett on July 14, 1941, and also known as Ron Everett) is an African American "[6]
Economics and racism
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination which is caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is (e. g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y. ) The common hypothesis embraced by classical economists is that competition in a capitalist economy decreases the impact of discrimination. The thinking behind the hypothesis is that discrimination imposes a cost on the employer, and thus a profit-driven employer will avoid racist hiring policies.
Declarations against racial discrimination
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen issued during the French Revolution and the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed after World War II, which all postulate equality between all human beings. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly ( 10 December 1948 at Palais World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 The Race Question is a UNESCO statement issued on 18 July, 1950 following World War II. Montague Francis Ashley Montagu (born Israel Ehrenberg on June 28 1905, East London England - died November 26 1999, Princeton New Jersey Claude Lévi-Strauss (klod levi stʁos born 28 November 1908 is a French Anthropologist. Karl Gunnar Myrdal (6 December 1898 – 17 May 1987 was a Swedish economist politician and Nobel laureate Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS ( 22 June 1887 &ndash 14 February 1975) was an English Evolutionary biologist — to "drop the term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups". The statement condemned scientific racism theories which had played a role in the Holocaust. Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Along with Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question influenced the 1954 U. An American Dilemma The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy is a 1944 study of Race relations authored by Swedish Economist Gunnar Myrdal S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka". Racial segregation in the United States is the Racial segregation of facilities services and opportunities such as housing education employment and transportation along Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, 347 US 483 (1954 was a Landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court, which overturned earlier [7]
The United Nations uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted in 1966:
. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD is a United Nations convention. . . any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. (Part 1 of Article 1 of the U. N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)[8]
In 2001, the European Union explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to Institutions of the European Union: "Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union is a document containing Human rights provisions ‘solemnly proclaimed’ by the European Parliament There are currently five institutions of the European Union which govern the Union "[9]
Ideology
As an ideology, racism existed during the 19th century as "scientific racism", which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity. Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews Typology in Anthropology is the division of the human species by races [10] Although such racist ideologies have been widely discredited after World War II and the Holocaust, the phenomena of racism and of racial discrimination have remained widespread all over the world. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as
It was already noted by DuBois that in making the difference between races, it is not race that we think about, but culture: “…a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life”[11] Late nineteenth century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on "race", ethnicity and "survival of the fittest" to shape new nationalist doctrines. "Survival of the fittest" is a Phrase which is shorthand for a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation. [12] According to this view, culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism, the denomination "Germanic" became virtually equivalent to superiority of race.
Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures, that were considered inferior or impure. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own Culture. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: "Racism does not originate from the existence of ‘races’. It creates them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences. "[13] This definition explicitly ignores the fiery polemic on the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of David C. Rowe "A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race. David C Rowe ( 27 September 1949 – 2 February 2003) was an American Psychology professor known for his work studying "[14]
Until recent history this racist abuse of physical anthropology has been politically exploited. Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Apart from being unscientific, racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I). [15]
Racism has been a motivating factor in social discrimination, racial segregation, hate speech and violence (such as pogroms, genocides and ethnic cleansings). Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Hate speech is a term for speech intended to degrade intimidate or incite violence or prejudicial action against a person or group of people based on their race, Gender A pogrom is a form of Riot directed against a particular group whether ethnic religious or other and characterized by destruction of their Homes Businesses Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group Ethnic cleansing is a Euphemism referring to the persecution through imprisonment expulsion or killing of members of an ethnic minority by a majority to achieve ethnic homogeneity Despite the persistence of racial stereotypes, humor and epithets in much everyday language, racial discrimination is illegal in many countries. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Some politicians have practiced race baiting in an attempt to win votes. A politician (from Greek " Polis " is an individual who is involved in influencing public decision making through the influence of Politics or a person Race baiting is an act of using racially derisive language actions or other forms of communication to anger intimidate or incite a person or groups of people or to make those
Ethnic nationalism
- Further information: Ethnic nationalism and Romantic nationalism
After the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was confronted with the new "nationalities question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Ethnic nationalism is a form of Nationalism wherein the " Nation " is defined in terms of Ethnicity. Romantic nationalism (also National Romanticism, organic nationalism, identity nationalism) is the form of Nationalism in which the state derives The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Nationality is a relationship between a Person and their State of Origin, Culture, association Affiliation and/or Loyalty The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of Nationalism had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the levée en masse by the French revolutionaries, thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded Republic against the Ancien Régime order represented by the European monarchies. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Levée en masse (literally "Rise in (a Mass" is defined in Article 4 letter A paragraph 6 of the Third Geneva Convention. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in This led to the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of nations, and in particular of nation-states. The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms (Ottoman Empire, Holy Roman Empire, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of France, etc. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Sweden was between 1611 and 1718 one of the Great powers of Europe ), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (Kabinettskriege in German). Kabinettskriege (English "Cabinet War" is the German expression referring to the type of Wars which affected Europe during the period of Absolute
Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for the first time in Spain during the Peninsula War (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy Patriotism is commonly defined as love of and/or devotion to one's country The Age of Enlightenment (in Spanish Ilustración) came to Spain in the eighteenth century with the French Bourbon dynasty, after the decay The Peninsular War or Spanish War of Independence pitted an alliance of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal against France Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era, leading in particular to the 1848 Revolutions, the Italian unification completed during the 1871 Franco-Prussian War, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, thus achieving the German unification. The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The Palace of Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal Château in Versailles, in France 's Île-de-France region The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, the "sick man of Europe," was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, would lead to the creation after World War I of the various nation-states of the Balkans, which were always confronted, and remain so today, with the existence of "national minorities" in their borders. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All [16] Ethnic nationalism, which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states. Ethnic nationalism is a form of Nationalism wherein the " Nation " is defined in terms of Ethnicity. One of its main influences was the Romantic nationalist movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as Johann Herder (1744-1803), Johan Fichte (1762-1814) in the Addresses to the German Nation (1808), Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), or also, in France, Jules Michelet (1798-1874). Romantic nationalism (also National Romanticism, organic nationalism, identity nationalism) is the form of Nationalism in which the state derives Johann Gottfried von Herder ( August 25, 1744 December 18, 1803) was a German philosopher, Poet, and Literary Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher Jules Michelet ( 21 August 1798 &ndash 9 February 1874) was a French Historian. It was opposed to liberal nationalism, represented by authors such as Ernest Renan (1823-1892), who conceived of the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the Volk ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily plebiscite", 1882) or also John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Liberal nationalism is a kind of Nationalism defended recently by Political philosophers who believe that there can be a non- Xenophobic form of nationalism Ernest Renan ( February 28, 1823 &ndash October 12, 1892) was a French Philosopher and writer deeply attached to his native See also Folk (disambiguation, Volk (disambiguation Folk is one of the Germanic roots that mean "(of the people" or "our A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential [17]
Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental imperialist" (Hannah Arendt, 1951[18]) discourses, for example in the pan-Germanism discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude Pan-Germanism (Pangermanismus or Alldeutsche Bewegung was a political movement of the 19th century aiming for unity of the German -speaking peoples of Europe The Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband), created in 1891, promoted German imperialism, "racial hygiene" and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Alldeutscher Verband ( German for "All-German Union" or "Pan-German League" was a German Far-right organization which promoted The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late 19th century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. Racial hygiene (often labeled a form of " Scientific racism " is the selection by a government of the putatively most physical intellectual and moral persons to raise Another, popular current, the Völkisch movement, was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. The völkisch movement is the German interpretation of the populist movement with a romantic focus on Folklore and the "organic" Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the Thule Society, would participate in the founding of the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the NSDAP Nazi party. The Thule Society (Thule-Gesellschaft originally the Studiengruppe für germanisches Altertum 'Study Group for Germanic Antiquity' was a German Occultist The German Workers' Party ('Deutsche Arbeiterpartei', or DAP was the short-lived predecessor of the Nazi Party (German Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 Pan-Germanism and played a decisive role in the interwar period of the 1920s-1930s. [18]
These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a "master race" (often the "Aryan race" or "Nordic race") issued from the scientific racist discourse. The master race ( German: die Herrenrasse) is a concept in Nazi Ideology, which holds that the Germanic and Nordic The " Aryan race " is a concept in European culture that was influential in the period of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries The Nordic race was one of the racial categories into which the Europeans were divided by anthropologists in the first half of the twentieth century They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying ethnic cleansing in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state. Ethnic cleansing is a Euphemism referring to the persecution through imprisonment expulsion or killing of members of an ethnic minority by a majority to achieve ethnic homogeneity
Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of far-right movements in France, took place during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the 19th century. The far-right tradition in France founds its origins as the distinction of left and right in politics itself to the 1789 French Revolution. The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s During several years, a nation-wide querelle affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish military officer. Querelle, a 1982 film directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder, adapted from French author Jean Genet 's 1947 novel Querelle de Brest Alfred Dreyfus (9 October 1859 &ndash 12 July 1935 was a French artillery officer of Jewish background whose trial and conviction in 1894 on charges of treason The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Émile Zola, who wrote J'accuse in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet Maurice Barrès (1862-1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France. Maurice Barrès ( 19 August 1862 - 4 December 1923) was a French novelist, journalist, and anti-semite [19] At the same time, Charles Maurras (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist Action française movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative métèques). __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and In Ancient Greece, the term metic meant resident alien a person who did not have citizen rights in their Greek City-state ( Polis) of residence Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the French people. Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion (
Ethnic conflicts
- Further information: Ethnicity
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as xenophobia and ethnocentrism, although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own Culture. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed to rally combatants in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians). The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation A privileged combatant is a person who takes a direct part in the hostilities of an armed conflict within the Law of war and is someone who upon capture qualifies as a Prisoner
Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethical considerations. Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other. Pontiac's Rebellion was a war launched in 1763 by North American Indians who were dissatisfied with British policies in the Great Lakes region after " (Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, p. 208) Basil Davidson insists in his documentary, Africa: Different but Equal, that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas. Basil Davidson (born 9 November 1914 in Bristol, England) is an acclaimed British Historian, writer and Africanist
The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West. Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the Triangular Trade. Triangular trade is a historical term indicating Trade between three ports or regions New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's Europe and the People without History).
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that during the Valladolid controversy in the middle of the 16th century that the Native Americans were natural slaves because they had no souls. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (1494 - 1573 was a Spanish Dominican, philosopher and theologian. The Valladolid debate (1550 – 1551 concerned the treatment of natives of the New World. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.
Academic racism
- Further information: Race and intelligence
Academic racism was pushed by white supremacists during the period when white people garnered great profits from slavery and colonialism. White People is the second album by Handsome Boy Modeling School. Academic racism had the effect of attempting to deny the culture, history and ancestry from the victims of the profitable slave and colonial systems. Owen 'Alik Shahadah comments on this racism by stating: "Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. Owen 'Alik Shahadah (b 1973) is a director, African Writer, Musician, Photographer and Music producer. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa, other than raw material. "[20] Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said, "I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences. "[21] German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people. "[22]
In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world. " Hegel further claimed that blacks had no "sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent" (On Blackness Without Blacks: Essays on the Image of the Black in Germany, Boston: C. W. Hall, 1982, p. 94). Fewer than 30 years before Nazi Germany started World War II, the German Otto Weininger, claimed: "A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of imprudence" (Sex and Character, New York: G. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Otto Weininger ( April 3, 1880 – October 4, 1903) was an Austrian Philosopher. P. Putnam, 1906, p. 302).
The German conservative Oswald Spengler remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: in The Hour of Decision Spengler denounced "the 'happy ending' of an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought to jazz music and Negro dancing to perform the Death March for a great Culture" (The Hour of Decision, pp. Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (29 May 1880 Blankenburg am Harz &ndash 8 May 1936 Munich) was a German Historian and Philosopher whose Jazz is an American Musical art form which originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States 227-228). During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. [22]
_Stuttgart1928.jpg/150px-Völkerschau_(Human_Zoo)_Stuttgart1928.jpg)
Scientific racism
- Further information: Unilineal evolution
The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews Unilineal evolution (also referred to as classical social evolution) is a 19th century Social theory about the Evolution of societies and Cultures The term scientific racism refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the New Imperialism period. New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the Church's resistance to positivists accounts of history, and its support of monogenism, that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with creationist accounts of history. Positivism is the Philosophy that the only authentic knowledge is knowledge that is based on actual sense experience "Creationism" can also refer to Creation myths in general or to a concept about the origin of the soul.
These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with unilineal theories of social progress which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Unilineal evolution (also referred to as classical social evolution) is a 19th century Social theory about the Evolution of societies and Cultures Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "survival of the fittest", a term coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864, associated with ideas of competition which were named social Darwinism in the 1940s. "Survival of the fittest" is a Phrase which is shorthand for a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance Herbert Spencer ( April 27, 1820 – December 8, 1903) was an English Philosopher; prominent classical liberal Social Darwinism is a theory that competition among all individuals groups nations or ideas drives Social evolution in human societies Charles Darwin himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in The Descent of Man (1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex is a book on Evolutionary theory by English naturalist Charles Darwin, first He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with European civilization. [23][24]
At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses of "degeneration of the race" and "blood heredity. Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention This article deals with the social-philosophical meaning of degeneration " Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on physical anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, phrenology, physiognomy and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Anthropometry ( Greek άνθρωπος man and μέτρον measure literally meaning "measurement of humans" in Physical anthropology, refers to the Craniometry is the technique of measuring the Bones of the Skull. Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν phrēn, "mind" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" is a defunct field of study once Physiognomy ( Gk physis, nature and gnomon, judge interpreter is the assessment of a person's character or personality from their outer appearance especially
Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of cultural anthropology (Franz Boas, etc. Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. Franz Boas ( July 9, 1858 &ndash December 21, 1942) was a German - American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern ), the British school of social anthropology (Bronisław Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, etc. Social anthropology is the branch of Anthropology that studies how currently living human beings behave in social groups For the Olympic champion athlete see Bronisław Malinowski (athlete. Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (born 17 January 1881 in Birmingham - died 24 October 1955 in London) was an English ), the French school of ethnology (Claude Lévi-Strauss, etc. Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Claude Lévi-Strauss (klod levi stʁos born 28 November 1908 is a French Anthropologist. ), as well as the discovery of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a gene-centered view of evolution in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based their conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetic level. The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that Natural selection acts through differential survival of competing However, the modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular those related to the race and intelligence controversy, seems to show that genetics could also be used for ideological, racist purposes. The study of race and intelligence is a controversial field which seeks to determine whether or not human intellectual abilities vary between races The modern controversy Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is
Heredity and eugenics
- Further information: Eugenics
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by Francis Galton (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of degeneration. Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention Sir Francis Galton FRS ( 16 February 1822 &ndash 17 January 1911) half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an This article deals with the social-philosophical meaning of degeneration He applied statistics to study human differences and the alleged "inheritance of intelligence," foreshadowing future uses of "intelligence testing" by the anthropometry school. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. Study of the heritability of IQ is a controversial field of research that includes biology psychology philosophy sociology and anthropology An Intelligence Quotient or IQ is a score derived from one of several different Standardized tests attempting to measure Intelligence. Such theories were vividly described by the writer Emile Zola (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, Les Rougon-Macquart, where he linked heredity to behavior. Émile François Zola ( (2 April 1840 &ndash 29 September 1902 was an influential French Writer, the most important exemplar of the literary school of Les Rougon-Macquart is the collective title given to French novelist Émile Zola 's twenty-novel cycle Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics (Son Excellence Eugène Rougon) and medicine (Le Docteur Pascal) and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism (L'Assommoir), prostitution (Nana), and homicide (La Bête humaine). Son Excellence Eugène Rougon is the sixth novel in the Rougon-Macquart series by Émile Zola. Doctor Pascal (orig French Le Docteur Pascal) is the twentieth and final novel of the Rougon-Macquart series by Émile Zola, first published L'Assommoir (1877 is the seventh novel in Émile Zola 's twenty-volume series Les Rougon-Macquart. For the film see La Bête humaine (film (1938 La Bête Humaine is an 1890 novel by Émile Zola.
During the rise of Nazism in Germany, some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century. [25] According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, The Race Question, an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. The Race Question is a UNESCO statement issued on 18 July, 1950 following World War II. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed:
up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the appeasement policy of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi ideology and policy. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Masaryk and Beneš took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race. Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (ˈtomaːʃ ˈɡarɪk ˈmasarɪk sometimes called Thomas Masaryk in English ( March 7, 1850 – September 14, Edvard Beneš ( pronounced) ( May 28 1884 Kožlany, Bohemia (then part of Austria-Hungary . . Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.
The Third Reich's racial policies, its eugenics programs and the extermination of Jews in the Holocaust, as well as Gypsies in the Porrajmos and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. The racial policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called " Aryan race " and Nazi eugenics were Nazi Germany 's race-based social policies that placed the improvement of the race through Eugenics at the center of their The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as The Porajmos (also Porrajmos) literally Devouring, is a term considered to be coined by the Romani people to describe attempts by the regime in Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the Boasian school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. Franz Boas ( July 9, 1858 &ndash December 21, 1942) was a German - American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled The Race Question. The Race Question is a UNESCO statement issued on 18 July, 1950 following World War II.
Polygenism and racial typologies
- Further information: Polygenism and Typology (anthropology)
Works such as Arthur Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Polygenism is a theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages either from a scientific or a religious basis Typology in Anthropology is the division of the human species by races Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau ( July 14, 1816 — October 13, 1882) was a French Aristocrat, novelist and man of An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853&ndash1855 by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau is a voluminous work while originally intended as a work of Henri de Boulainvilliers ( October 21, 1658, St Saire, Normandy - January 23, 1722, Paris) was a French Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among human beings, giving it the legitimacy of biology. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles He was one of the first theorists to postulate polygenism, stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races. Polygenism is a theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages either from a scientific or a religious basis " Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936)'s typology of races, who published in 1899 The Aryan and his Social Role, in which he claimed that the white, "Aryan race", "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype. Georges Vacher de Lapouge ( 1854 - 1936) was a French Anthropologist and a theoretician of Eugenics and Racialism Typology in Anthropology is the division of the human species by races Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" Cephalic index is the ratio of the maximum width of the head to its maximum length (i PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "Homo europaeus (Teutonic, Protestant, etc. The Nordic race was one of the racial categories into which the Europeans were divided by anthropologists in the first half of the twentieth century ), the "Homo alpinus" (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc. the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries many Western anthropologists classified humans into a variety of races and subraces Auvergne ( Occitan: Auvèrnhe/Auvèrnha) was the name of an historically independent county in the center of France, as well as later a Province of The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language ), and finally the "Homo mediterraneus" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc. The Mediterranean race was one of the three sub-categories into which the people of Europe were divided by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the Andalusia (Andalucía is an autonomous community of Spain. It is the most populous and the second largest in terms of land area ) He assimilated races and social classes, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the Homo europaeus, while the lower class represented the Homo alpinus. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of trade unionists, considered to be a "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of labour conditions. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming The labour movement or labor movement is a broad term for the development of a collective organization of working people, to campaign in their own interest for better His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking social conflict by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order[26]
The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, William Z. Ripley used identical racial classification in The Races of Europe (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Social conflict is a Conflict or Confrontation of social powers. William Zebina Ripley ( October 13, 1867 &ndash August 16, 1941) was an American Economist, lecturer at Columbia University professor The Races of Europe is the title of two books related to the Anthropology of Europeans The first book was written by American sociologist/anthropologist Others famous scientific authors include H.S. Chamberlain at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who naturalized himself as German because of his admiration for the "Aryan race") or Madison Grant, a eugenicist and author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916). Houston Stewart Chamberlain ( September 9, 1855 - January 9, 1927) was a British -born author of books on political philosophy natural Naturalization is the acquisition of Citizenship or Nationality by somebody who was not a citizen or national of that country when he or she was born Madison Grant ( November 19, 1865 &ndash May 30, 1937) was an American Lawyer, known primarily for his work as a The Passing of The Great Race or The racial basis of European history was an influential book of Scientific racism written by the American eugenicist lawyer and
Human Zoos
Human Zoos (called "People Shows"), were an important means of bolstering popular racism by connecting it to scientific racism: they were both objects of public curiosity and of anthropology and anthropometry. Human zoos (also called "ethnological expositions" or " Negro Villages" were 19th and 20th century public exhibits of human beings usually in a "natural" Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Anthropometry ( Greek άνθρωπος man and μέτρον measure literally meaning "measurement of humans" in Physical anthropology, refers to the [27][28] Joice Heth, an African American slave, was displayed by P.T. Barnum in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of Saartjie Baartman, the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Joice Heth (c1756– February 19, 1836) was an African American slave who was exhibited by P Phineas Taylor Barnum (July 5 1810 &ndash April 7 1891 was an American Showman remembered for Hoaxes and for founding the Circus that became the Saartjie "Sarah" Baartman ( 1789 &ndash December 29, 1815) was the most famous of at least two Khoikhoi women who were exhibited Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Carl Hagenbeck, inventor of the modern zoos, exhibited animals aside of human beings considered as "savages". Carl Hagenbeck ( June 10, 1844 - April 14, 1913) was a merchant of Wild animals who supplied many European Zoos as well [29][30] Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was displayed in 1906 by eugenicist Madison Grant, head of the Bronx Zoo, as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to Darwinism, creating a social Darwinism ideology which tried to ground itself in Darwin's scientific discoveries. Ota Benga (c1881 or 1884 &ndash March 20, 1916) was a Congolese Pygmy who was featured in a 1906 Human zoo exhibit at the Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention Madison Grant ( November 19, 1865 &ndash May 30, 1937) was an American Lawyer, known primarily for his work as a This article is about the zoo for the TV series see The Bronx Zoo (TV series; for the book "The Bronx Zoo" about the Yankees see Sparky Lyle, its Darwinism is a term used for various different movements or concepts related to a greater or lesser extent to Charles Darwin 's work on Evolution. Social Darwinism is a theory that competition among all individuals groups nations or ideas drives Social evolution in human societies Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life The 1931 Paris Colonial Exhibition displayed Kanaks from New Caledonia. A colonial exhibition was a type of international exhibition intended to boost trade and bolster popular support for the various colonial empires during Kanak (formerly also Canaque) are the indigenous Melanesian inhabitants of New Caledonia in the southwest Pacific. For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. [31] A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the Brussels' World Fair. Expo 58, also known as the Brussels World’s Fair, Brusselse Wereldtentoonstelling or Exposition Universelle et Internationale de Bruxelles, was held from
Racism and colonialism in the nineteenth century
Authors such as Hannah Arendt, in her 1951 book The Origins of Totalitarianism, have said that the racist ideology ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the imperialist conquests of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide, 1904-1907, or Armenian Genocide, 1915-1917). The Second European colonization wave is so-called because it followed the first European colonization wave, which started in the 15th century The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt which classed Nazism and Stalinism as Totalitarian movements New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th The Herero and Namaqua Genocide occurred in German South-West Africa (modern day Namibia) from 1904 until 1907 during the Scramble for Africa Rudyard Kipling's poem The White Man's Burden (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the European culture over the rest of the world, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936 was an English Author and poet " The White Man's Burden " is a poem by the English poet Rudyard Kipling. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous people, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.
However, during the 19th century, West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the Arab slave trade in Africa,[32] as well as in suppression of the slave trade in West Africa. The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. [33] Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the "Hottentot Venus" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. Saartjie "Sarah" Baartman ( 1789 &ndash December 29, 1815) was the most famous of at least two Khoikhoi women who were exhibited The same year that Kipling published his poem, Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness (1899), a clear criticism of the Congo Free State owned by Leopold II of Belgium. Joseph Conrad (born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski, 3 December 1857 – 3 August 1924 was a Polish-born English novelist Heart of Darkness is a Novella written by Polish-born writer Joseph Conrad (born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski) The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor Leopold Lodewijk Filips Maria Victor (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909 was King of the Belgians.
Examples of racial theories used to legitimate the imperialist conquest include the creation of the "Hamitic" ethno-linguistic group during the European exploration of Africa. Hamitic is an obsolete ethno-linguistic classification of some Ethnic groups within the Afro-Asiatic (previously termed "Hamito-Semitic" language family Anthropological linguistics is the study of the relations between language and culture and the relations between human biology cognition and language European exploration of Africa began with Ancient Greeks and Romans, that explored and settled in North Africa Used in different ways, the term was first used by Johann Ludwig Krapf (1810-1881) to qualify all languages of Africa spoken by black people. Johann Ludwig Krapf (1810 – 1881 was a German Missionary in East Africa, as well as an Explorer, linguist, and traveler It was then restricted by Karl Friedrich Lepsius (1810-1877) to African non-Semitic languages. Karl (or Carl) Richard Lepsius ( December 23, 1810 &ndash July 10, 1884) was a pioneering Prussian The term then became quite popular, and was applied to different groups (Ethiopians, Eritreans, Berbers, Nubians, Somalis, etc. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. The Nubians (Arabic نوبي Nuubi are an ethnic group originally from northern Sudan, now inhabiting East Africa and some parts of Northeast Africa in southern Egypt Somalis ( Soomaaliyeed, الصوماليون are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. ) Europeans conceived "Hamitic" people, allegedly descendants of the biblical Ham, son of Noah, as leaders within Africa. Ham (; Greek Χαμ, Cham; Arabic: ar حام, xam, "hot" according to the Table of Nations in Genesis, was a
However, the allegedly Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have 'failed' as rulers, a failing that was sometimes explained by interbreeding with "non-Hamites". Miscegenation (Latin miscere "to mix" + genus "kind" is the mixing of different racial groups, that is marrying, cohabiting So, in the mid-20th century the German scholar Carl Meinhof (1857-1944) claimed that the "Bantu race" was formed by a merger of Hamitic and "Negro races". Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof ( July 23, 1857 &ndash February 11, 1944) was a German linguist and one of the first linguists Bantu may refer to Bantu expansion, a series of migrations of Bantu speakers Bantu languages Bantu people Negro is a term referring to people of Black African ancestry The 'Hottentots' (Nama or Khoi) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and Bushmen ("San) races" — both being termed nowadays as Khoisan peoples). Nama (in older sources also called Namaqua) are an African Ethnic group of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. The Bushmen, San, Sho, Basarwa, ǃKung or Khwe are indigenous people of southern Africa that spans most areas of South Africa Khoisan (increasingly commonly spelled Khoesan or Khoe-San) is the name for two major Ethnic groups of Southern Africa. The term "Hamitic" is nowadays obsolete. Racism spread throughout the "New World" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Whitecapping which started in Indiana in the late 19th century soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. Whitecapping is a phenomenon that occurred specifically in America during the late 19th and early 20th centuries
Mainly dehumanization, but also racism, played a role in the American mutilation of Japanese war dead during World War II
State-sponsored racism
State racism played a role in the Nazi Germany regime and fascist regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's Showa period. Dehumanization is a process by which members of a group of people assert the "inferiority" of another group through subtle or overt acts or statements During World War II, some United States military personnel mutilated dead Japanese service personnel in the Pacific theater of operations World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Nazism developed several theories concerning races They claimed to scientifically measure a strict hierarchy among "human race " at the top was the " Nordic race The racial policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called " Aryan race " and Generalplan Ost ( GPO) was a secret Nazi plan of Genocide and Ethnic cleansing to be realised in the territories occupied Racial segregation in the United States is the Racial segregation of facilities services and opportunities such as housing education employment and transportation along Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea is complex and multi-faceted State racism is a Concept used by French Philosopher Michel Foucault to designate the reappropriation of the historical and political Discourse Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology The, or Shōwa era, is the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of Emperor Shōwa ( Hirohito) from December 25, 1926 to State racism also played a major part in the formation of the Dominican Republic's identity [8] and violent actions encouraged by Dominican governmental xenophobia against Haitans and "Haitian looking" people. Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries Currently the Dominican Republic employs a de-facto system of separatism for children and grandchildren of Haitians and black Dominicans, denying them birth certificates, education and access to health care. The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with [34] These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal. [35][36][37]
Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance
- Further information: Limpieza de sangre
Racist opinions occurred in the works of some Arab historians and geographers. Limpieza de sangre is also a novel in the Captain Alatriste series by Arturo Pérez-Reverte. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding In the 14th century CE, the Tunisian Ibn Khaldun wrote:
- :"beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings. " "Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated. "[38][39]
In the same period, the Egyptian Al-Abshibi (1388-1446) wrote, "It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals. "[40]
Richard E. Nisbett has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula, occupying most of Hispania for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of Al-Andalus (711-1492). Richard Nisbett is Theodore M Newcomb Distinguished Professor of Social psychology and co-director of the Culture and Cognition program at the University of Michigan The Umayyad conquest of Hispania ( 711 – 718) began as an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Berbers inhabitants Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Al-Andalus coincided with La Convivencia, an era of religious tolerance and with the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula (912, the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III - 1066, Granada massacre). La Convivencia ("the Coexistence" is a term used to describe the situation in Spanish history from about 711 to 1492 &ndash concurrent with the For the period of Spanish cultural flourishing in the 17th century see Spanish Golden Age. Abd-ar-Rahman III ( ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh; Arabic: عبد الرحمن الثالث January 11 889 – October [41] It was followed by a violent Reconquista under the Reyes Catolicos (Catholic Kings), Ferdinand V and Isabella I. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period The Catholic Monarchs (los Reyes Católicos is the collective title used in history for Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon Ferdinand II of Aragon the Catholic (Fernando II de Aragón y V de Castilla "el Católico" Ferran II d'Aragó "el Catòlic" Ferrando II d'Aragón The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the Cleanliness of blood doctrine. Limpieza de sangre is also a novel in the Captain Alatriste series by Arturo Pérez-Reverte. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic "blue blood" emerged in a highly racialized and implicitly white supremacist context, as author Robert Lacey explains:
It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. White supremacy is a racist ideology based on the assertion that White people are superior to other racial groups. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin--proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white man--Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism. White People is the second album by Handsome Boy Modeling School. [42]
Following the expulsion of most Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming "New Christians" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Conversos ( Spanish and Portuguese for "a convert" from Latin conversus, "converted turned around" and its feminine form For other uses see New Christian (Swedenborgian. New Christian ( Spanish: cristianos nuevos; Portuguese, An Inquisition was carried out by members of the Dominican Order in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The Order of Preachers ( Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum) after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is The system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the Marquis of Pombal in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo 1st Count of Oeiras 1st Marquis of Pombal (in Portuguese, Marquês de Pombal, pron The limpieza de sangre doctrine was also very common in the colonization of the Americas, where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. The Spanish colonization of the Americas was Spain 's conquest settlement and rule over much of the Western hemisphere. This precise classification was described by Eduardo Galeano in the Open Veins of Latin America (1971). Eduardo Hughes Galeano (born September 3, 1940) is an Uruguayan journalist, Writer and one of the most outstanding representatives It included, among others terms, mestizo (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), castizo (75% European and 25% Native American), Spaniard (87. Mestizo is a Spanish term that was coined during the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin Castizo ( or kas•'ti•so is a Spanish word with a general meaning of "pure" or "genuine" 5% European and 12. 5% Native American), Mulatto (50% European and 50% African), Albarazado (43. Mulatto is a term used to describe a person with one white parent and one black parent or a person whose Ancestry is a mixture of black and white 75% Native American, 29. 6875% European, and 26. 5625% African), etc.
At the end of the Renaissance, the Valladolid debate (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of natives of the "New World" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas Bartolomé de Las Casas to another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. This article is about the Spanish Renaissance of the 15th-16th centuries The Valladolid debate (1550 – 1551 concerned the treatment of natives of the New World. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. The Order of Preachers ( Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum) after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is Bartolomé de las Casas, OP ( August 24 1484 &ndash July 17 1566) was a 16th century Spanish Dominican Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (1494 - 1573 was a Spanish Dominican, philosopher and theologian. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and natural law. Natural law or the law of nature ( Latin: lex naturalis) is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by Nature and that To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and Eurocentrism that would arise in the following centuries. Eurocentrism is the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective with an implied belief either consciously or subconsciously in the preeminence of European (and
Although anti-Semitism has a long European history, related to Christianism (anti-Judaism), racism itself is frequently described as a modern phenomenon. Although Christian antisemitism is considered to have started around the 12th century its roots are attributed by some scholars to anti-Jewish attitudes and polemic beginning Anti-Judaism has been called "a total or partial opposition to Judaism &mdashand to Jews as adherents of it&mdashby persons who accept a competing system In the view of the French intellectual Michel Foucault, the first formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern period as the "discourse of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of sovereignty. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western '''Europe''' and its first colonies which spans the three centuries between Discourse (L discursus, "running to and from" means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself [43] Philosopher and historian Michel Foucault argued that the first appearance of racism as a social discourse (as opposed to simple xenophobia, which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, in Edward Coke or John Lilburne's work. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. Discourse (L discursus, "running to and from" means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union Sir Edward Coke (pronounced "Cook" ( 1 February 1552 &ndash 3 September 1634) was an early English colonial Entrepreneur John Lilburne (1614&ndash 29 August 1657) also known as Freeborn John, was an agitator in England before during and after the
However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "scientific racism". Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a historical notion. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the bourgeoisie, the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as Boulainvilliers, Nicolas Fréret, and then, during the 1789 French Revolution, Sieyès, and afterward Augustin Thierry and Cournot. Henri de Boulainvilliers ( October 21, 1658, St Saire, Normandy - January 23, 1722, Paris) was a French Nicolas Fréret was a (1688-1749 French scholar He was born at Paris on 15 February 1688 The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Augustin Thierry (or Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry May 10, 1795 - May 22, 1856) was a French Historian. Antoine Augustin Cournot ( 28 August 1801 ‑ 31 March 1877) was a French economist Philosopher and Mathematician Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".
He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified nation-state is, of course, here an anachronism — which themselves formed different "races". For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy An anachronism (from the Greek "ana" " ανά " "against anti-" and "chronos" " χρόνος " Boulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy, who tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "Franks", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans, who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the right of conquest. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group This article covers the culture of Romanized areas of Gaul. For the political history of the brief "Gallic Empire" of the 3rd century see Gallic Empire The right of conquest is the purported Right of a conqueror to territory taken by force of arms Early modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation-state: the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "this new people born of slaves. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation François Dominique de Reynaud Comte de Montlosier ( April 16, 1755 &mdash December 9, 1838) was a French politician . . mixture of all races and of all times". Miscegenation (Latin miscere "to mix" + genus "kind" is the mixing of different racial groups, that is marrying, cohabiting
While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the ethnic nationalist discourse which identified the "race" to the "folk", leading to such movements as pan-Germanism, Zionism, pan-Turkism, pan-Arabism, and pan-Slavism, medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and social conflicts. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation See also Folk (disambiguation, Volk (disambiguation Folk is one of the Germanic roots that mean "(of the people" or "our Pan-Germanism (Pangermanismus or Alldeutsche Bewegung was a political movement of the 19th century aiming for unity of the German -speaking peoples of Europe History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Pan-Turkism is a political movement aiming to unite the various Turkic peoples into a modern political State, a Confederation, or an economic union closely Pan-Arabism is a movement for Unification among the peoples and countries of the Arab World, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid 19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been Social conflict is a Conflict or Confrontation of social powers. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "state racism" (e. Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention State racism is a Concept used by French Philosopher Michel Foucault to designate the reappropriation of the historical and political Discourse g. Nazism). On the other hand, Marxists also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Thus, Marxists transformed the essentialist notion of "race" into the historical notion of "class struggle", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which Class struggle is the active expression of Class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective In The Will to Knowledge (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, which opposed the concepts of "blood heredity," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse. The History of Sexuality is the title of a three-volume series of Books by French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault written between 1976 Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior
During the Age of Enlightenment
While modern racism has an essentialist and biological conception of race, racist or xenophobic opinions have been shared by some authors, from the Antiquity to the Age of Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century However, this early form of racism did not conceive of "race" as a biological concept — as biology itself did not exist as such —, but as the accidental effect of climate on physical traits. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles [44] With the Age of Discovery, the diversity of mankind became an important topic of research, leading to debates concerning monogenism and polygenism, respectively endorsing the unique origin of mankind (coherent with the Genesis Biblical account) and the multiple origins of mankind. The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored Polygenism is a theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages either from a scientific or a religious basis Pierre de Maupertuis (1698-1759), for example, reconciled the Biblical account with the present diversity of "races" in his Essai de philosophie morale (1749, Essay on Moral Philosophy), explaining "racial" differences by climatic factors. Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis ( July 17, 1698 &ndash July 27, 1759) was a French Mathematician, Philosopher [44] He thus explained the colour of black people through the inheritance of acquired characteristics, claiming white was the original colour of mankind. "Heir" and "Heiress" redirect here For the men and women fragrances endorsed by Paris Hilton see Heiress (fragrance. [44] He also highlighted the spiritual strength of Africans seized as slaves, pointing out how, like the Ancient Stoic philosophers, they prefer to die rather than to survive to capture. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC [44] Arguments on the influence of climate found additional weight with Buffon's Histoire naturelle in the middle of the 18th century, and his thesis on the unity of mankind was taken back by Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie in the article Humaine, espèce (Human, Specie). Denis Diderot ( October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French Philosopher and writer Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences des arts et des métiers (Encyclopedia or a systematic dictionary of the sciences arts and crafts was a general [44] According to Ann Thomson, although Buffon did establish a "clear hierarchy [. . . ] between the beautiful white civilised races of the temperate zone and those savages who have degenerated in more extreme climates, his emphasis on the unity of the human race and his distinction between humans and other animals were extremely influential. This article deals with the social-philosophical meaning of degeneration [44]" The abolitionists thus used his arguments to show that Africans were not naturally inferior, and could be improved by different treatment and different climate. Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies [44]
The abbé Demanet (1767) claimed that a Portuguese colony in Africa had become black after several generations, due to the effect of climate, a story which was given wide credence by abolitionists, quoted for example by Cabanis (1757-1808) andThomas Clarkson (1760-1846)[44][44] The abolitionist Physiocrat abbé Pierre-Joseph-André Roubaud alleged that black Africans would change skin colour if they lived in different climatic conditions. Pierre Jean George Cabanis ( June 5, 1757 - May 5, 1808) was a French Physiologist. Thomas Clarkson ( 28 March 1760 &ndash 26 September 1846) abolitionist, was born at Wisbech, Cambridgeshire The physiocrats were a group of Economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of land Agriculture or land development Chronological list of French language authors (regardless of nationality by date of birth [44] According to Ann Thomson,
What emerges from these examples is the overwhelming desire to insist on the unity of the human race by emphasizing the effect of the climate and other environmental causes, but not necessarily to claim the equality of all humans; for the existence of a hierarchy is not systematically denied but, on the contrary, frequently accepted [exceptions quoted by Thomson includes James Dunbar and the abbé Grégoire. James Dunbar may refer to James W Dunbar (1860-1943 US representative Jim Dunbar, radio programme director James For the 20th-century Belgian Byzantinologist see Henri Grégoire (historian Henri Grégoire (often referred to as Abbé Grégoire ]. This of course was to have long-lasting effects in the Nineteenth Century, when the arguments about climate were countered and the hierarchy was seen to be permanent, as the differences between humans were innate. [44]
Moral factors were also considered to influence physical and psychical traits. The American abolitionist Anthony Benezet stated, in the Historical Account of Guinea (1772), that Africans in Africa were a sociable, virtuous and intelligent people; but that their servile condition in Amercia explained their "degeneration" and adoption of the vices of Europeans. Anthony Benezet, or Antoine Bénézet ( January 31, 1713 - May 3, 1784) was an American Educator and Abolitionist Slavery in the United States began soon after English colonists first settled Virginia in 1607 and lasted until the passage of the Thirteenth [44] Furthermore, the theory of the Great Chain of Being, which asserted a continuity between animals and humans, thus contradicting Christian religion (and henceforth supported by materialists such as Diderot) was used by some, such as Edward Long, spokesman for the West India Lobby, or Charles White’s Account of the Regular Gradation in Man (1799 — White denied the effect of climate) to assert the animal nature of some humans. The great chain of being or scala naturæ is a classical and western Medieval conception of the order of the universe whose chief characteristic is a strict For the US Senator from Missouri see Edward V Long; for the Maryland Congressman see Edward Henry Carroll Long. Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old Charles or Charlie White may refer to Charles White (American football (born 1958 American football player Heisman Trophy winner [44]
Interminority racism
Inter-minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of power in society. Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people Prejudiced thinking among and between minority groups does occur, for example conflicts between blacks and Korean Americans (notably in the 1992 Los Angeles Riots), between blacks and Jews (such as the riots in Crown Heights in 1991), between new immigrant groups (such as Latinos), or towards whites. Korean Americans ( Korean: ko 한국계 미국인 Hanja: ko 韓國系美國人 hangukgye migugin) are Americans of Korean origin The Los Angeles riots of 1992, also known as the Rodney King uprising or the Rodney King riots, were sparked on April 29, 1992 when a jury The Crown Heights Riot was a three-day riot that occurred in August of 1991 in the Crown Heights neighborhood in the New York City borough of Hispanic and Latino Americans are Americans of Hispanic or Latino descent, which comprises ancestry or origins in Hispanic America [45][46][47][48]
There has been a long-running racial tension between African Americans and Mexican Americans. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa See also History of Mexican-Americans Mexican Americans are Americans of Mexican ancestry [49][50][51] There have been several significant riots in California prisons where Mexican American inmates and African Americans have targeted each other particularly, based on racial reasons. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. [52][53] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican Americans, and vice versa. [54][55][56][57] There had also been cases in the late 1920s California in which Filipino immigrants have been victimized for moving into a predominantly white neighborhood, or for working in an overwhelmingly white workplace. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Filipino Americans are Americans of Philippine ancestry which trace back to the Philippines, an archipelagic nation in Southeast Asia. Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term [58] Recently there has also been an increase in racial violence between whites and Hispanic immigrants[59] and between African immigrants and American blacks. A European American (Euro-American is a person who resides in the United States and is either from Europe or is the descendant of European immigrants Africans immigrants, in the scope of this article are recent immigrants to the United States from the continent of Africa and their descendants [60]
The Aztlan movement has been described as racist. Aztlán ( from Nahuatl Aztlān) is the Legendary ancestral home of the Nahua peoples, one of the main cultural groups in Mesoamerica The movement's goal involves the pursuit of repossessing the American southwest. It has also been called the Mexican "reconquista"(re-conquest) whose name was inspired by the Spanish "reconquista" which led to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent [61] According to gang experts and law enforcement agents, a longstanding race war between the Mexican Mafia and the Black Guerilla family, a rival African American prison gang, has generated such intense racial hatred among Mexican Mafia leaders, or shot callers, that they have issued a "green light" on all blacks. The Mexican Mafia, also known as La eMe (Spanish for the letter M is a Mexican Criminal organization, and is one of the oldest and most powerful African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa Prison gang is a term used to denote any type of Gang activity in prisons and correctional facilities A sort of gang-life fatwah, this amounts to a standing authorization for Latino gang members to prove their mettle by terrorizing or even murdering any blacks sighted in a neighborhood claimed by a gang loyal to the Mexican Mafia. [62]
In Britain, tensions between minority groups can be just as strong as any minority group suffers with the majority population. In Birmingham, there have been long-term divisions between the Black and South Asian communities, which were illustrated in the Handsworth riots and in the smaller 2005 Birmingham riots. The two Handsworth Riots occurred in the Handsworth suburb of Birmingham, England, during the summers of 1981 and 1985 The Birmingham riots of 2005 occurred on two consecutive nights on Saturday October 22 and Sunday October 23 2005 in the Lozells area of Tensions between Muslims and Sikhs - two groups who have a history of bad relations - have flared in Slough[63] and at some colleges to the west of London. Slough ( ˈslaʊ is a Borough and Unitary authority within the ceremonial county of Berkshire, England. [64] In Dewsbury, a Yorkshire town with a relatively high Muslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil disturbances between Kurds and South Asians. Dewsbury is a Market town within the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees, in West Yorkshire, England. [65]
During the Congo Civil War (1998-2003), Pygmies were hunted down like game animals and eaten. The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War and the Great War of Africa, began in August 1998 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Pygmies (singular Pygmy) refers to a member of any human group whose adult males grow to less than 150 cm (4 feet 11 inches in average height or less than 155 cm Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of cannibalism. Cannibalism (from Spanish es ''caníbal'' in connection with cannibalism among the Antillean Caribs, also called anthropophagy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, has asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide. The Mbuti people or Bambuti as they are collectively called are one of several indigenous Hunter-gatherer groups in the Congo region of Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group [66]
Notes
- ^ UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination, NEW YORK 7 March 1966
- ^ A. Metraux (1950) "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race" in American Anthropologist 53(1): 142-145)
- ^ The CPS : Racist and Religious Crime - CPS Prosecution Policy
- ^ Sendhil Mullainathan and Marianne Bertrand (2003). Sendhil Mullainathan is a Professor of Economics at Harvard University. "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination", NBER Working Paper No. 9873, July, 2003).
- ^ Richard W. Race, Critics have replied that Carmichael's definition glosses over individual responsibility and leaves no room to question whether the members of a group are failing or not meeting standards due not to discrimination but due to their own dysfunctional behaviour and bad choices. Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and WalesPDF (47. 2 KiB), Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research, University of Sheffield, p. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International 12. Accessed 20 June 2006. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ "Effects on Africa". "Ron Karenga". Maulana Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett on July 14, 1941, and also known as Ron Everett) is an African American
- ^ “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”, by Harald E.L. Prins, UNESCO (English)
- ^ Text of the Convention, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 1966
- ^ http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html
- ^ Pierre-André Taguieff, La force du préjugé, 1987 (French)
- ^ The Conservation of Races - W. Harald E L Prins (born 1951 is a Dutch anthropologist ethnohistorian filmmaker and human rights activist specialized in North and South America's indigenous peoples and cultures The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD is a United Nations convention. Pierre-André Taguieff, born in 1946 in Paris, is a Philosopher, Historian and political economist, and director of research at CNRS E. B. DuBois, 1897 (p. 21)[1]
- ^ The Idea of National Superiority in Central Europe, 1880 – 1918, Marius Turda, ISBN10: 0-7734-6180-9 ISBN13: 978-0-7734-6180-2, 2005
- ^ National Analytical Study on Racist Violence and Crime, RAXEN Focal Point for ITALY - Annamaria Rivera [2]
- ^ David C. Rowe in Heredity 87 (2001) 254-255 : Book review on The Emperor's New Clothes: biological theories of race at the new millennium. Joseph L. Graves Jr. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey. 2001, ISBN 0-8135-2847-X) [3]
- ^ INTER-AMERICAN CONVENTION AGAINST RACISM AND ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AND INTOLERANCE - Study prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee, 2002 [4]
- ^ On this "nationalities question" and the problem of nationalism, see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (1983); Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848 (1962), Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality (1990); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1991); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992 (1990); Anthony D. Smith, Theories of Nationalism (1971), etc. Nationality is a relationship between a Person and their State of Origin, Culture, association Affiliation and/or Loyalty The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Ernest André Gellner ( 9 December 1925 &ndash 5 November 1995) was a Philosopher and social anthropologist, cited as one Benedict Richard O'Gorman Anderson (born August 26, 1936) is Aaron L The imagined community is a concept coined by Benedict Anderson which states that a Nation is a Community socially constructed which is to say Charles Tilly ( May 20, 1929 &ndash April 29, 2008) was an American sociologist, political scientist, and Anthony D Smith (born 1933 is Professor Emeritus of Nationalism and Ethnicty at the London School of Economics, and is considered one of the founders of the
- ^ John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, 1861
- ^ a b Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
- ^ Maurice Barrès, Le Roman de l'énergie nationale (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897)
- ^ The Removal of Agency from Africa by Owen 'Alik Shahadah
- ^ RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME by Eric Morton
- ^ a b [Race and Racism ( O. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt which classed Nazism and Stalinism as Totalitarian movements Maurice Barrès ( 19 August 1862 - 4 December 1923) was a French novelist, journalist, and anti-semite Owen 'Alik Shahadah (b 1973) is a director, African Writer, Musician, Photographer and Music producer. R. P. ) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by Bernard Boxill
- ^ Charles Darwin (1871). Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. John Murray. Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Desmond, Adrian & Moore, James (1991), Darwin, London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 pp. James Moore, historian of science at the Open University and the University of Cambridge and visiting scholar at Harvard University, is noted as the author of 28, 147, 580.
- ^ UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
- ^ Matsuo Takeshi (University of Shimane, Japan). United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 The Race Question is a UNESCO statement issued on 18 July, 1950 following World War II. WikipediaWikiProject Japanese prefectures for guidelines --> is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on Honshū L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in Etudes de langue et littérature françaises 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625. The INIST (Institut de l'information scientifique et technique — Institute of Scientific and Technical Information is the CNRS centre of documentation 0050 (Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS
- ^ On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism, Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000
- ^ "Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists", Le Monde Diplomatique, August 2000. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs (English); "Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale", Le Monde diplomatique, August 2000. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs (French) (available to everyone)
- ^ Human Zoos, by Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, in Le Monde diplomatique, August 2000 (English) French - free
- ^ Savages and Beasts - The Birth of the Modern Zoo, Nigel Rothfels, Johns Hopkins University Press (English)
- ^ The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931PDF (96. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs 6 KiB) by Michael G. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International Vann, History Dept. , Santa Clara University, USA
- ^ Royal Navy and the Slave Trade : Battles : History
- ^ Chasing Freedom Exhibition: the Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
- ^ AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL USA http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGUSA20070321002
- ^ Edward Russel of Liverpool, The Knights of Bushido, 2002, p. Santa Clara University is a private co-educational Jesuit -affiliated University located in Santa Clara, California. 238, Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2001, p. 313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese power, 1989, p. 263-272
- ^ Anti-Haitianism, Historical Memory, and the Potential for Genocidal Violence in the Dominican Republic University of Toronto Press ISSN 1911-0359 (Print) 1911-9933 (Online) Issue Volume 1, Number 3 / December 2006 DOI 10. 3138/7864-3362-3R24-6231
- ^ El Diario/LA PRENSA OnLine
- ^ [5]. The Muqaddimah, Translated by F. Rosenthal
- ^ West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era
- ^ Lewis, Bernard (2002). Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford University Press, 93. ISBN 0195053265.
- ^ Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. The Jewish Encyclopedia was an Encyclopedia originally published between 1901 and 1906 by Funk and Wagnalls. 1906 ed.
- ^ Robert Lacey, Aristocrats. Little, Brown and Company, 1983, p. 67
- ^ Michel Foucault, Society Must Be Defended (1976-77)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ann Thomson, Issues at stake in eighteenth-century racial classification, Cromohs, 8 (2003): 1-20 (English)
- ^ http://www.recomnetwork.org/articles/01/08/16/0254240.shtml
- ^ SPLCenter.org: The Rift
- ^ http://www.michnews.com/artman/publish/article_12516.shtml
- ^ http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?/base/news-4/1137481512176100.xml
- ^ Race relations | Where black and brown collide | Economist.com
- ^ Riot Breaks Out At Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts At Southern California School
- ^ [6]
- ^ JURIST - Paper Chase: Race riot put down at California state prison
- ^ Racial segregation continues in California prisons
- ^ A bloody conflict between Hispanic and black gangs is spreading across Los Angeles
- ^ The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There’s a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter
- ^ [7]
- ^ Commentary: Black-brown friction waste of energy
- ^ Filipino Migrant Workers in California
- ^ Late-night snack soured by racially motivated violence
- ^ African immigrants face bias from blacks
- ^ La Voz de Aztlan
- ^ BAW: The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There’s a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter
- ^ Untitled
- ^ http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/1995/03March95.html#Sikh/Muslim%20clash,%20Isleworth http://www.searchlightmagazine.com/index.php?link=template&story=61
- ^ http://www.dewsburyreporter.co.uk/viewarticle.aspx?sectionid=28&articleid=2955186 http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/guide/seat-profiles/dewsbury bit
- ^ DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN
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- Rocchio, Vincent F. Albert Memmi ( ألبرت ميمي; born December 15, 1920) is a Tunisian Jewish writer and essayist who migrated to France (2000), Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture, Westview Press.
- Smedley, Audrey and Brian D. Smedley. (2005) "Race as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real. " American Psychologist 60: 16-26.
- Smedley, Audrey. 2007. Race in North America: Origins and Evolution of a World View. Boulder, CO: Westview.
- Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom, URL.
- Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", Political Power and Social Theory 11 (1997), 183–206. (historiography of race and racism)
- Taguieff, Pierre-André (1987), La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles, Tel Gallimard, La Découverte. Pierre-André Taguieff, born in 1946 in Paris, is a Philosopher, Historian and political economist, and director of research at CNRS
- Twine, France Winddance (1997), Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil, Rutgers University Press.
- UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
- Tali Farkash, "Racists among us" in Y-Net (Yediot Aharonot), "Jewish Scene" section, April 20, 2007
- Wellman, David T. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 The Race Question is a UNESCO statement issued on 18 July, 1950 following World War II. 1993. Portraits of White Racism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
- Winant, Howard The New Politics of Race (2004)
- Winant, Howard and Omi, Michael Racial Formation In The United States Routeledge (1986); Second Edition (1994). Howard Winant is an American Sociologist and Race theorist. Professor Winant is most well known for developing the theory of racial formation Howard Winant is an American Sociologist and Race theorist. Professor Winant is most well known for developing the theory of racial formation Michael Omi is an American Sociologist. Professor Omi is most well known for developing the theory of Racial formation along with Howard Winant
- Wohlgemuth, Bettina. "Racism in the 21st century - How everybody can make a difference", Saarbrücken, DE, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller e. K. , (2007). ISBN 978-3-8364-1033-5
See also
- Albophobia
- Apartheid
- Anti-racism
- Black Panthers
- Black separatism
- Bnai Brith
- Capital Jury Project
- Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy
- Chicano Movement
- Discrimination
- Hamas
- History of slavery
- Intersectionality
- James Hal Cone
- Ku Klux Klan
- La Raza
- Liberation theology
- List of racism-related topics
- Louis Farrakhan
- Malcolm X
- Nation of Islam
- Nazism
- Neo-Nazism
- Nur für Deutsche
- Police brutality
- PLO
- Prejudice
- Race and Inequality
- Racism by country
- Radical Islam
- Reverse discrimination
- Slavery in modern Africa
- Social criticism
- Teaching for social justice
- White power skinhead
- Whiteness studies
- Xenophobia
External links
- Facing History and Ourselves - Social Justice Organization
- Race, history and culture - Ethics - March 1996 -Extract of two articles by Claude Lévi-Strauss
- Race, Racism and the Law - Information about race, racism and racial distinctions in the law. Anti-racism includes beliefs actions movements and policies adopted or developed to oppose Racism. The Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense) was a Marxist / Maoist African-American organization established Black separatism is a movement to create separate institutions for Black people in societies historically dominated by whites particularly the United States. The Independent Order of B'nai B'rith ( IPA: /bəneɪ 'brɪθ/ Hebrew: בני ברית "Sons of the Covenant " is the oldest continually-operating The Capital Jury Project (CJP is a consortium of university-based research studies on the decision-making of Jurors in Death penalty cases in the United States The Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy is a series of events related to alleged incidents of Racist behaviour by contestants on the television series Celebrity The Chicano Movement of the 1960s also called the Chicano Civil Rights Movement, also known as El Movimiento, it is an extension of the Mexican Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Ḥamas (ar حركة حماس acronym ar حركة المقاومة The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Intersectionality is a theory which seeks to examine the ways in which various socially and culturally constructed categories interact on multiple levels James Hal Cone ( August 5, 1938 -) is an advocate of Black liberation theology, a Theology grounded in the experience of African Americans Ku Klux Klan ( KKK) is the name of several past and present secret domestic terrorist organizations in the United States, generally in the southern states that are La Raza (literally "The Race" is sometimes used to denote people of Chicano (i Liberation theology is a school of Theology within Christianity, particularly in the Roman Catholic This is a list of topics related to Racism: A Affirmative action Afrocentrism Anti-Arabism Louis Farrakhan (born Louis Eugene Walcott, May 11, 1933) is the Supreme Minister of the Nation of Islam as the National Representative Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little; May 19 1925 February 21 1965 also known as El-Hajj Malik El- Shabazz, was an African American The Nation of Islam ( NOI) (أمة الإسلام Ummah al-Islāmu) is a group founded in Detroit, Michigan, Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German The term neo-Nazism refers to post- World War II Political movements Social movements and ideologies seeking to revive Nazism, Nur für Deutsche ( German: "Only for Germans quot during World War II in many German-occupied countries is a racialist slogan Police brutality is the world wide use of excessive force usually physical but potentially also in the form verbal attacks and psychological intimidation, by The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO) (منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية or Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastiniyyah) is a political and paramilitary The word prejudice refers to prejudgment making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event In the United States there is inequality between different groups of people. The article describes the state of Race relations and Racism in a number of countries. Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only Reverse Discrimination, is in its simplest form the practice of favouring a historically disadvantaged group at the expense of members of a historically advantaged group Slavery in Africa continues today Slavery existed in Africa before the arrival of Europeans - as did a slave trade that exported millions Social criticism analyzes Social structures which are seen as flawed and aims at practical solutions by specific measures radical Reform or even Revolutionary Teaching for Social justice is an educational philosophy that proponents argue Teaches for Justice and equity all learners in White power skinheads are a racist, and often also anti-semitic, offshoot of the Skinhead Subculture that originated in Great Britain Whiteness studies is an Interdisciplinary arena of academic inquiry focused on the cultural historical and sociological aspects of people identified as white, and Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries Claude Lévi-Strauss (klod levi stʁos born 28 November 1908 is a French Anthropologist.
- Unfair and Lowly - Fairness Creams and Racist Tones in the Indian context.
- Race - Companion website to a PBS documentary about race.
- Race - the Power of Illusion Information on a documentary about race.
Dictionary
racism
-noun
- The belief that each race has distinct and intrinsic attributes.
- The belief that one race is superior to all others.
- Prejudice or discrimination based upon race.
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