Psychotherapy is an interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living. An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people This usually includes increasing individual sense of well-being and reducing subjective discomforting experience. Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship building, dialogue, communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (such as in a family). A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. Family denotes a group of People affiliated by consanguinity affinity or co-residence

Contents 1 Forms 2 Systems of Psychotherapy 3 History 4 General Concerns 5 Specific schools and approaches 5.1 Scientific validation of different psychotherapeutic approaches 5.2 Psychoanalysis 5.3 Gestalt Therapy 5.4 Group Psychotherapy 5.5 Medical and non-medical models 5.6 Cognitive behavioral therapy 5.7 Behavior Therapy and Behavioral Counseling 5.8 Expressive therapy 5.9 Integrative Psychotherapy 5.10 Hypno-Psychotherapy 5.11 Adaptations for children 6 The therapeutic relationship 6.1 Confidentiality 7 Effectiveness and criticism 8 References 8.1 Psychodynamic schools 8.2 Humanistic schools 9 See also 9.1 Related topics 9.2 Related lists

Forms

Most forms of psychotherapy use only spoken conversation, though some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story, music, or therapeutic touch. Banter redirects here for the Radio 4 panel show see Banter (radio show A conversation is Communication by two or more people or by one's self In Fine art, a work of art (or artwork or work) is a creation such as a Song, Book, Film, Video game, Drama is the specific mode of Fiction represented in Performance. A narrative or story is a construct created in a suitable format (written spoken poetry prose images song Theater, or Dance) that describes a sequence of Therapeutic touch (TT, also called Non-Contact Therapeutic Touch (NCTT or Distance Healing, is an energy therapy claimed to promote healing and reduce Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s). Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Purposeful, theoretically based psychotherapy began in the 19th century with psychoanalysis; since then, scores of other approaches have been developed and continue to be created. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior

Therapy is generally used to respond to a variety of specific or non-specific manifestations of clinically diagnosable crises. Treatment of everyday problems is more often referred to as counseling (a distinction originally adopted by Carl Rogers) but the term is sometimes used interchangeably with "psychotherapy".

Psychotherapeutic interventions are often designed to treat the patient in the medical model, although not all psychotherapeutic approaches follow the model of "illness/cure". Some practitioners, such as humanistic schools, see themselves in an educational or helper role. Because sensitive topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality.

Systems of Psychotherapy

There are several main systems of psychotherapy:

• Cognitive behavioral
• Psychodynamic
• [[Existential Therapy|Existential]
• Humanistic/supportive
• Brief therapy (sometimes called "strategic" therapy, solution focused brief therapy)
• Systemic Therapy (including family therapy & marriage counseling)
• Integrative Psychotherapy
• Somatic Psychotherapy
• Transpersonal Psychotherapy
• Hypno-Psychotherapy
• Psychodrama/Dramatherapy
• On the way to a Fundamental Theory of Psychotherapy: "Periodic Table" of Tinbergen's four questions
• On the basis of Tinbergen's four questions a "periodic table" of all schools of psychotherapy can be established within a framework of reference of all fields of anthropological research and humanities. See also Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ( CBT) is an umbrella-term for psychotherapeutic systems that deal with cognitions interpretations Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a form of Depth psychology, the primary focus of which is to reveal the unconscious content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. Brief therapy is an umbrella term for a variety of approaches to Psychotherapy. Solution focused brief therapy ( SFBT) often referred to as simply 'solution focused therapy' or 'brief therapy' is a type of talking therapy that is based upon Social Systemic therapy is a School of psychology which seeks to address people not an individual level as had been the focus of earlier forms of therapy but as people in relationship Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of Psychotherapy that works with families Relationship counseling is the process of Counseling the parties of a relationship in an effort to recognize and to better manage or reconcile troublesome differences Integrative Psychotherapy involves the fusion of different schools of Psychotherapy. Somatic Psychology, also referred to as Body psychotherapy, is an Interdisciplinary field involving the study of therapeutic and Holistic approaches Transpersonal psychology is a school of Psychology that studies the Transpersonal, self- transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human experience When asked questions of animal and human behavior such as why these creatures see even elementary school children can answer that vision helps them find food and avoid danger When asked questions of animal and human behavior such as why these creatures see even elementary school children can answer that vision helps them find food and avoid danger

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History

See also: History of psychotherapy and Timeline of psychotherapy

In an informal sense, psychotherapy can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as individuals received psychological counsel and reassurance from others. Albert Ellis ( September 27 1913 &ndash July 24 2007) was an American Psychologist who in 1955 developed Rational Emotive Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy ( REBT) is a comprehensive active-directive philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses Although modern scientific psychology is often dated at the 1879 opening of the first psychological clinic by Wilhelm Wundt, attempts to create methods for assessing and treating mental This article is a compiled Timeline of Psychotherapy. A more general description of the development of the subject of Psychology can be found in the Purposeful, theoretically-based psychotherapy was probably first developed in the Middle East during the 9th century by the Persian physician and psychological thinker, Rhazes, who was at one time the chief physician of the Baghdad psychiatric hospital. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is In the West, however, serious mental disorders were generally treated as demonic or medical conditions requiring punishment and confinement until the advent of moral treatment approaches in the 18th Century. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Moral Treatment was an approach to Mental disorder based on Humane Psychosocial care or Moral discipline that emerged in the 18th century and This brought about a focus on the possibility of psychosocial intervention - including reasoning, moral encouragement and group activities - to rehabilitate the "insane".

Psychoanalysis was perhaps the first specific school of psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund Freud and others through the early 1900s. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Trained as a neurologist, Freud began focusing on problems that appeared to have no discernible organic basis, and theorized that they had psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. Techniques such as dream interpretation, free association, transference and analysis of the id, ego and superego were developed. For the John Cale minimalist album see Dream Interpretation (Album Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to Dreams In many of the Transference is a phenomenon in Psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings for one person to another Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of

Many theorists, including Anna Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, and Heinz Kohut, built upon Freud's fundamental ideas and often formed their own differentiating systems of psychotherapy. Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud Alfred Adler ( February 7 1870 &ndash May 28 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye" /hɔrnaɪ/ born Danielsen ( September 16, 1885 – December 4, 1952) was a German Otto Rank ( April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939) was an Austrian Psychoanalyst, writer teacher and therapist Erik Homburger Erikson ( June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994) was born in Frankfurt to Danish parents but later obtained Melanie Klein ( March 30 1882 – September 22 1960) was an Austrian born Heinz Kohut May 3 1913 &ndash October 8 1981 is best known for his development of Self Psychology, a school of thought These were all later termed under a more broad label of psychodynamic, meaning anything that involved the psyche's conscious/unconscious influence on external relationships and the self. Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and In Psychoanalysis, the psyche (ˈsaɪki refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, Behavior and Personality. Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Many observers throughout history have argued that there are influences on Consciousness from other parts of the Mind. Sessions tended to number into the hundreds over several years.

Behaviorism developed in the 1920s, and behavior modification as a therapy became popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior is a philosophy of Psychology based on the Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to improve behavior such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through Notable contributors were Joseph Wolpe in South Africa, M. Joseph Wolpe (1915 &ndash 1997 was born in Johannesburg South Africa in 1915 but became an American citizen later in his life B. Shipiro and Hans Eysenck in Britain, and B.F. Skinner in the United States. Hans Jürgen Eysenck ( March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany - September 4, 1997 in London, UK) was a Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( March 20, 1904 &ndash August 18 1990) was an influential American Psychologist, author Behavioral therapy approaches relied on principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning theory to bring about therapeutic change in observable symptoms. Behaviour therapy is a form of Psychotherapy used to treat depression, Anxiety disorders, Phobias, and other forms of Psychopathology Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov For the article on social learning theory in psychology and education see Social cognitive theory. The approach became commonly used for phobias, as well as other disorders. Phobias Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term are the most common form of Anxiety disorders An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health

Some therapeutic approaches developed out of the European school of existential philosophy. Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence Concerned mainly with the individual's ability to develop and preserve a sense of meaning and purpose throughout life, major contributors to the field (e. g. , Irvin Yalom, Rollo May) and Europe (Viktor Frankl, Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, R.D.Laing, Emmy van Deurzen) attempted to create therapies sensitive to common 'life crises' springing from the essential bleakness of human self awareness, previously accessible only through the complex writings of existential philosophers (e. Irvin David Yalom (b June 13th 1931 in Washington DC MD is an author of fiction and nonfiction Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry at Stanford University, Rollo May ( April 21, 1909 – October 22, 1994) was an American existential psychologist. Viktor Emil Frankl MD, PhD, ( March 26, 1905 - September 2, 1997) was an Austrian neurologist Ludwig Binswanger ( April 13, 1881 &ndash February 5, 1966) was a Swiss Psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of Medard Boss (October 4 1903 - December 21 1990 was a Swiss psychoanalytic psychiatrist who developed a form of Psychotherapy known as Daseinsanalysis Ronald David Laing ( 7 October 1927 – 23 August 1989 was a Scottish Psychiatrist who wrote extensively on Mental illness Emmy van Deurzen is an Existential therapist in the United Kingdom. g. , Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Friedrich Nietzsche). Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Gabriel Honoré Marcel ( 7 December 1889, Paris – 8 October 1973, Paris) was a French Philosopher Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist The uniqueness of the patient-therapist relationship thus also forms a vehicle for therapeutic enquiry.

A related body of thought in psychotherapy started in the 1950s with Carl Rogers. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive Carl Ransom Rogers ( January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American Psychologist and among the founders of the Based in existentialism and the works of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of human needs, Rogers brought person-centered psychotherapy into mainstream focus. Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence Abraham Harold Maslow ( April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in Psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which Person-Centered Therapy (PCT also known as Client-centered therapy or Rogerian Psychotherapy, was developed by the humanist Psychologist Carl Rogers Rogers' basic tenets were unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathic understanding, with each demonstrated by the counselor. Unconditional positive regard is a term used by the Humanist school of psychology Empathy is the capacity to recognize or understand another's state of mind or Emotion. The aim was to create a relationship conducive to enhancing the client's psychological well being, by enabling the client to fully experience and express themselves. Others developed the approach, like Fritz and Laura Perls in the creation of Gestalt therapy, as well as Marshall Rosenberg, founder of Nonviolent Communication, and Eric Berne, founder of Transactional Analysis. Friedrich (Frederick Salomon Perls ( July 8 1893 Berlin – March 14 1970, Chicago better known as Fritz Perls, was a noted German Laura Perls, born Lore Posner 1905 in Pforzheim, Germany; died 13th July 1990 in Pforzheim was a noted German-born psychologist and psychotherapist who helped establish Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental Nonviolent Communication (NVC is a process developed by Marshall Rosenberg and others which people use to communicate with greater Compassion and clarity Eric Berne ( May 10 1910 &ndash July 15 1970) was a Canadian-born psychiatrist best known as the creator of Transactional analysis Transactional analysis, commonly known as TA to its adherents is an integrative approach to the theory of Psychology and Psychotherapy. Later these fields of psychotherapy would become what is known as humanistic psychotherapy today. Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. Self-help groups and books became widespread.

During the 1950s, Albert Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). Albert Ellis ( September 27 1913 &ndash July 24 2007) was an American Psychologist who in 1955 developed Rational Emotive Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy ( REBT) is a comprehensive active-directive philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses A few years later, psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed a form of psychotherapy known as cognitive therapy. Aaron Temkin Beck (born July 18 1921 is an American psychiatrist and a Professor emeritus at the department of Psychiatry at the University Cognitive Therapy (CT is a type of Psychotherapy developed by American Psychiatrist Aaron T Both of these included short, structured and present-focused therapy aimed at changing a person's distorted thinking, by contrast with the long-lasting insight-based approach of psychodynamic or humanistic therapies. Cognitive distortions are inaccurate thoughts or ideas identified in Cognitive therapy and its variants which maintain negative thinking and help to maintain negative emotions Cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches were combined during the 1970s, resulting in Cognitive behavioral therapy. See also Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ( CBT) is an umbrella-term for psychotherapeutic systems that deal with cognitions interpretations Being oriented towards symptom-relief, collaborative empiricism and modifying one's core beliefs, the approach gained widespread acceptance as a primary treatment for numerous disorders. A "third wave" of cognitive and behavioral therapies developed, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Dialectical behavior therapy, which expanded the concepts to other disorders and/or added novel components. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, or ACT (pronounced "act" not "ay see tee" is a branch of cognitive-behavioral therapy an Empirically based Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT is a psychological method developed by Marsha M

Counseling methods developed, including solution-focused therapy and systemic coaching. Solution focused brief therapy ( SFBT) often referred to as simply 'solution focused therapy' or 'brief therapy' is a type of talking therapy that is based upon Social This article refers to the act of coaching people For other uses of the word see Coach (disambiguation Coaching -a definitionProminent Postmodern psychotherapies such as Narrative Therapy and coherence therapy did not impose definitions of mental health and illness, but rather saw the goal of therapy as something constructed by the client and therapist in a social context. Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism Narrative Therapy was initially developed during the 1970s and 1980s largely by Australian Michael White ( Dulwich Centre and his friend and colleague David Epston, of New Coherence Therapy is a system of Psychotherapy based in the theory that symptoms of Mood, thought and Behavior are produced coherently according to the Systems Therapy also developed, which focuses on family and group dynamics—and Transpersonal psychology, which focuses on the spiritual facet of human experience. Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of Psychotherapy that works with families Transpersonal psychology is a school of Psychology that studies the Transpersonal, self- transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human experience Other important orientations developed in the last three decades include Feminist therapy, Brief therapy, Somatic Psychology, Expressive therapy, and applied Positive psychology. Feminist therapy is a set of related therapies arising from the disparity between the origin of most psychological theories and the majority of people seeking counseling being Brief therapy is an umbrella term for a variety of approaches to Psychotherapy. Somatic Psychology, also referred to as Body psychotherapy, is an Interdisciplinary field involving the study of therapeutic and Holistic approaches Expressive therapy, also known as creative arts therapy is the use of the Creative arts as a form of Therapy. Positive psychology is a recent branch of Psychology that "studies the strengths and Virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

A survey of over 2,500 US therapists in 2006 revealed the most utilised models of therapy and the ten most influential therapists of the previous quarter-century. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ^[1]

General Concerns

Psychotherapy can be seen as an interpersonal invitation offered by (often trained and regulated) psychotherapists to aid clients in reaching their full potential or to cope better with problems of life. Psychotherapists usually receive remuneration in some form in return for their time and skills. This is one way in which the relationship can be distinguished from an altruistic offer of assistance. Altruism is selfless concern for the welfare of others It is a traditional Virtue in many cultures and central to many religious traditions

Psychotherapy often includes techniques to increase awareness, for example, or to enable other choices of thought, feeling or action; to increase the sense of well-being and to better manage subjective discomfort or distress. Psychotherapy can be provided on a one-to-one basis or in group therapy. Group psychotherapy is a form of Psychotherapy in which one or more therapists treat a small group of clients together as a group It can occur face to face, over the telephone, or, much less commonly, the Internet. Its time frame may be a matter of weeks or many years. Therapy may address specific forms of diagnosable mental illness, or everyday problems in managing or maintaining person relationships or meeting personal goals. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Treatment of everyday problems is more often referred to as counseling (a distinction originally adopted by Carl Rogers) but the term is sometimes used interchangeably with "psychotherapy". Carl Ransom Rogers ( January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American Psychologist and among the founders of the

Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques to influence or persuade the client to adapt or change in the direction the client has chosen. Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people Persuasion is a form of Social influence. It is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea attitude or action by rational and symbolic (though not always These can be based on clear thinking about their options; experiential relationship building; dialogue, communication and adoption of behavior change strategies. Each is designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (as in a family). Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. Most forms of psychotherapy use only spoken conversation, though some also use other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story, or therapeutic touch. Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s). Because sensitive topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. Client confidentiality is the principle that an institution or individual should not reveal information about their clients to a third party without the consent of the client

Psychotherapists are often trained, certified, and licensed, with a range of different certifications and licensing requirements depending on the jurisdiction. Overview Certifications are earned from a Professional society and in general must be renewed periodically or may be valid for a specific period of time (e Licensure refers to the granting of a License, which gives a 'permission to practice Psychotherapy may be undertaken by clinical psychologists,counseling psychologists, social workers, marriage-family therapists, expressive therapists, trained nurses, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, mental health counselors, school counselors, or professionals of other mental health disciplines. Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing Social work is a discipline involving the application of Social theory and research methods to study and improve the lives of people groups and societies Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of Psychotherapy that works with families Expressive therapy, also known as creative arts therapy is the use of the Creative arts as a form of Therapy. A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically A psychiatrist (also archaically called an alienist) is a Physician who specializes in Psychiatry and is certified in treating Mental disorders Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Mental health counselors (in this article MHCs) practice Mental health counseling which is a dynamic Psychoeducational discipline born in the late 1970’s A school counselor is a Counselor and Educator who works in schools and have historically been referred to as " guidance counselors " or " Psychiatrists have medical qualifications and may also administer prescription medication. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body The primary training of a psychiatrist focuses on the biological aspects of mental health conditions, with some training in psychotherapy. Psychologists have more training in psychological assessment and research and, in addition, in-depth training in psychotherapy. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, A psychological evaluation or mental examination is an Examination into a person's Mental health by a mental health professional such as a Psychologist Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. Social workers have specialized training in linking patients to community and institutional resources, in addition to elements of psychological assessment and psychotherapy. Social work is a discipline involving the application of Social theory and research methods to study and improve the lives of people groups and societies Marriage-Family Therapists have specific training and experience working with relationships and family issues. A Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC) generally has special training in career, mental health, school, or rehabilitation counseling to include evaluation and assessments as well as psychotherapy. Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC is a Licensure for Mental health professionals The exact title varies by state but the other most frequently used title A school counselor is a Counselor and Educator who works in schools and have historically been referred to as " guidance counselors " or " Many of the wide variety of training programs are multiprofessional, that is, psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health nurses, and social workers may be found in the same training group. Consequently, specialized psychotherapeutic training in most countries requires a program of continuing education after the basic degree, or involves multiple certifications attached to one specific degree.

Specific schools and approaches

Main article: list of psychotherapies

In practices of experienced psychotherapists, therapy will not represent pure types, but will draw aspects from a number of perspectives and schools. This is an alphabetical List of Psychotherapies. It is an incomplete list and new or minor approaches are still being added ^[2][3]

Scientific validation of different psychotherapeutic approaches

In the psychotherapeutic community there has been discussion of evidence-based psychotherapy, e. g. ^[4]

Virtually no comparisons of different psychotherapies with long follow-up times have been carried out. ^[5] The Helsinki Psychotherapy Study^[6] is a randomized clinical trial, where patients are monitored for 12 months after the onset of study treatments, of which each lasted approximately 6 months. The assessments are to be completed at the baseline examination and during the follow-up after 3, 7, and 9 months and 1, 1. 5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 years. The final results of this trial are yet to be published since follow-up evaluations will continue up to 2009.

Psychoanalysis

Main article: Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis was the earliest form of psychotherapy, but many other theories and techniques are also now used by psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, personal growth facilitators, occupational therapists and social workers. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric A facilitator is someone who helps a group of people understand their common objectives and assists them to plan to achieve them without taking a particular position in the discussion An occupational therapist (OT is a health professional who is trained in the practice of Occupational therapy. Social work is a discipline involving the application of Social theory and research methods to study and improve the lives of people groups and societies Techniques for group therapy have been developed. Group psychotherapy is a form of Psychotherapy in which one or more therapists treat a small group of clients together as a group

While behaviour is often a target of the work, many approaches value working with feelings and thoughts. This is especially true of the psychodynamic schools of psychotherapy, which today include Jungian therapy and Psychodrama as well as the psychoanalytic schools. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Other approaches focus on the link between the mind and body and try to access deeper levels of the psyche through manipulation of the physical body. Examples are Rolfing, Bioenergetic analysis and postural integration. Rolfing or Structural Integration is a system of soft tissue manipulation, with the objective of realigning the body structurally and harmonizing its fundamental Bioenergetic Analysis is an important part of Body psychotherapy (body-oriented Reichian Psychotherapy) based on the expression of feelings and the re-establishment Psychotherapeutic Postural Integration (PPI is a wider development of Postural integration (PI an alternative Body psychotherapy method

Gestalt Therapy

Main article: Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt Therapy is a major overhaul of psychoanalysis. Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental In its early development it was called "concentration therapy" by its founders, Frederick and Laura Perls. However, its mix of theoretical influences became most organized around the work of the gestalt psychologists; thus, by the time Gestalt Therapy, Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality (Perls, Hefferline, and Goodman) was written, the approach became known as "Gestalt Therapy. "

Gestalt Therapy stands on top of essentially four load bearing theoretical walls: phenomenological method, dialogical relationship, field-theoretical strategies, and experimental freedom. Some have considered it an existential phenomenology while others have described it as a phenomenological behaviorism. Gestalt therapy is a humanistic, holistic, and experiential approach that does not rely on talking alone, but facilitates awareness in the various contexts of life by moving from talking about situations relatively remote to action and direct, current experience.

Group Psychotherapy

Main article: Group psychotherapy

The therapeutic use of groups in modern clinical practice can be traced to the early years of the 20th century, when the American chest physician Pratt, working in Boston, described forming 'classes' of fifteen to twenty patients with tuberculosis who had been rejected for sanatorium treatment. Group psychotherapy is a form of Psychotherapy in which one or more therapists treat a small group of clients together as a group The term group therapy, however, was first used around 1920 by Jacob L. Moreno, whose main contribution was the development of psychodrama, in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. Group psychotherapy is a form of Psychotherapy in which one or more therapists treat a small group of clients together as a group Dr Jacob Levy Moreno (born Bucharest, Romania, May 18 1889; died New York, USA, May 14 Psychodrama is a form of human development which explores through dramatic action the problems issues concerns dreams and highest aspirations of people groups systems and organizations The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the USA, such as Paul Schilder, who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. Austrian doctor and researcher Was born in Vienna in 1886 Graduated there in medicine in 1909 The power of groups was most influentially demonstrated in Britain during the Second World War, when several psychoanalysts and psychiatrists proved the value of group methods for officer selection in the War Office Selection Boards. A chance to run an Army psychiatric unit on group lines was then given to several of these pioneers, notably Wilfred Bion and Rickman, followed by S. H. Foulkes, Main, and Bridger. Wilfred Ruprecht Bion DSO (8 September 1897-8 November 1979 was a British psychoanalyst. Siegfried Heinrich Foulkes (1898-1976 born Siegfried Heinrich Fuchs in Karlsruhe Germany was the founder of Group Analysis, a specific form of Group therapy The Northfield Hospital in Birmingham gave its name to what came to be called the two 'Northfield Experiments', which provided the impetus for the development since the war of both social therapy, that is, the therapeutic community movement, and the use of small groups for the treatment of neurotic and personality disorders. The Northfield Hospital is a Psychiatric hospital located near Birmingham, England and is famous primarily for the work on group psychotherapy that took place there Therapeutic community is a term applied to a participative group-based approach to long-term Mental illness and/or Drug addiction that includes group psychotherapy

Medical and non-medical models

A distinction can also be made between those psychotherapies that employ a medical model and those that employ a humanistic model. The medical model describes the approach to illness that is dominant in Western medicine. Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. In the medical model the client is seen as unwell and the therapist employs their skill to help the client back to health. The extensive use of the DSM-IV, the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders in the United States, is an example of a medically-exclusive model. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association

In the humanistic model, the therapist facilitates learning in the individual and the client's own natural process draws them to a fuller understanding of themselves. An example would be gestalt therapy. Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental

Some psychodynamic practitioners distinguish between more uncovering and more supportive psychotherapy. Uncovering psychotherapy emphasizes facilitating the client's insight into the roots of their difficulties. The best-known example of an uncovering psychotherapy is classical psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Supportive psychotherapy by contrast stresses strengthening the client's defenses and often providing encouragement and advice. Depending on the client's personality, a more supportive or more uncovering approach may be optimal. Most psychotherapists use a combination of uncovering and supportive approaches.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Main article: Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on modifying everyday thoughts and behaviors, with the aim of positively influencing emotions. See also Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ( CBT) is an umbrella-term for psychotherapeutic systems that deal with cognitions interpretations The therapist helps clients recognise distorted thinking and learn to replace unhealthy thoughts with more realistic substitute ideas. This approach includes Dialectical behavior therapy. Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT is a psychological method developed by Marsha M

Behavior Therapy and Behavioral Counseling

Main article: Behavior Therapy

Behavior Therapy focuses on modifying overt behavior and helping clients to achieve goals. Behaviour therapy is a form of Psychotherapy used to treat depression, Anxiety disorders, Phobias, and other forms of Psychopathology This approach is built on the principles of learning theory including operant and respondent conditioning, which makes up the area of applied behavior analysis or behavior modification. Applied behavior analysis ( ABA) is the science of applying experimentally derived principles of behavior to improve socially significant behavior Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to improve behavior such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through This approach includes Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Functional Analytic Psychotherapy, and Dialectical behavior therapy. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, or ACT (pronounced "act" not "ay see tee" is a branch of cognitive-behavioral therapy an Empirically based Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP is an approach to clinical psychotherapy that uses a Radical Behaviorist position informed by B Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT is a psychological method developed by Marsha M Sometimes it is integrated with cognitive therapy to make cognitive behavior therapy

Expressive therapy

Main article: Expressive therapy

Expressive therapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression as its core means of treating clients. See also Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ( CBT) is an umbrella-term for psychotherapeutic systems that deal with cognitions interpretations Expressive therapy, also known as creative arts therapy is the use of the Creative arts as a form of Therapy. Expressive therapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities dance therapy, drama therapy, art therapy, music therapy, writing therapy, among others. Dance therapy, or dance movement therapy is the psychotherapeutic use of movement (and Dance) for emotional Cognitive, Social, behavioural Dramatherapy (often written drama therapy in the United States is the use of theatre techniques to facilitate personal growth and promote health Art therapy is a form of Expressive therapy that uses art materials such as paints chalk and markers Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve Writing therapy is a form of Expressive therapy that uses the act of writing and processing the written word as therapy Expressive therapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in a creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.

Integrative Psychotherapy

Main article: Integrative Psychotherapy

Integrative Psychotherapy represents an attempt to combine ideas and strategies from more than one theoretical approach. Integrative Psychotherapy involves the fusion of different schools of Psychotherapy. ^[7] These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include Multimodal Therapy, the Transtheoretical Model, Cyclical Psychodynamics, Systematic Treatment Selection, Cognitive Analytic Therapy, Internal Family Systems Model, and Multitheoretical Psychotherapy. Multimodal Therapy is an approach to Psychotherapy founded by Arnold Lazarus. The transtheoretical model of change in Health psychology explains or predicts a person's success or failure in achieving a proposed Behavior change, such as developing Cognitive Analytic Therapy (CAT was developed by Anthony Ryle. The Internal Family Systems Model ( IFS) is an integrative approach to Psychotherapy, Relationship counseling, and Family therapy Multitheoretical Psychotherapy (MTP is a new approach to Integrative Psychotherapy developed by Jeff E In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time.

Hypno-Psychotherapy

Unlike the majority of comparable therapies, hypno psychotherapy measures its history not in years or decades but centuries. Therefore, if the provenance of a therapy is to be determined by its longevity, hypno psychotherapy has stood the test of time. Throughout much of that history, the discipline has been hampered by the absence of a single theory to explain the medium through which it works - hypnosis. The usually acknowledged forerunner of modern hypno psychotherapy, Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)[1], believed in the existence of a universal fluid - animal magnetism - an imbalance of which in the human body caused illness. He, and others trained by him, sought to control the distribution of this fluid, restoring balance, and health, to those who sought his help. Mesmer was careful to confirm whether any given presenting problem were organic or functional, and worked with the latter, functional psychosomatic illnesses. (This same caution is observed by competent practitioners today. ) Mesmer was convinced that a cure might only be achieved when a patient experienced a crisis, typified by convulsions and related phenomena. In 1784, a Royal Commission in France, where Mesmer was then resident, decided against the existence of magnetic fluid. The Commission attributed Mesmer's undoubted successes to his manipulation of a patient's imagination; that is, by suggestion.

In an age not familiar with the power of suggestion alone, outside of a religious context, the significance of the Commission's findings was overlooked. But if there were no universal fluid, with nothing physical being transmitted between Mesmerist and subject, related phenomena must be psychological in origin. The blind regained their sight, for instance, through the power of imagination and suggestion, rather than animal magnetism. Since Mesmer would not allow his theory to be displaced by such a concept, and the Commission discounted it, the emergence of modern psychology and hypno psychotherapy was postponed. Discredited by the findings of the Commission and other enquiries, and the bizarre nature in which he chose to conduct therapy sessions, Mesmer eventually returned to his native Austria. These events, along with the convulsions of the French Revolution, Napoleonic and post-Napoleonic Europe, scattered Mesmer's followers throughout Europe and abroad. Attempts to carry forward Mesmer's medical applications met with considerable opposition. British doctors who advocated the use of Mesmerism, for instance, made little progress because of the attitude of the medical and scientific establishments. John Elliotson (1791-1868)[2] was obliged to resign his post as Professor of Surgery at University College, London. James Braid (1795-1860)[3], who substituted the word "Hypnotism" * for Mesmerism, was refused permission to read a paper on the subject to the British Association for the Advancement of Science. James Esdaile (1808-1859)[4], who performed over 300 major surgical operations in India using hypnosis as the anaesthetic, was denied access to the medical press to publish his findings. (* From Hypnos, Ancient Greek god of sleep, since Braid thought a form of sleep was involved. The name persists, though the sleep theory has been discarded. )

The often legitimate suspicions aroused by the extravagant claims and behaviour of mesmerists and hypnotists - some of whom exploited, and continue to exploit, related phenomena for "entertainment" - relegated the legitimate applications of hypnosis to the fringe of respectability. The advent of chemical anaesthetics and growth of the drugs industry impeded the study and use of hypnosis in medicine. In much the same way as chemical agents had served to displace hypnosis in the practice of medicine, so Freudian psychoanalysis tended to displace it in psychotherapy. Despite sporadic revivals of interest, such as after and during the First and Second World Wars when short term psychotherapy was needed, its present popularity is comparatively recent. Mesmer's student, de Puysegur (1751-1825), had quietly relegated the importance of the crisis in favour of the trance-like state typical of his therapeutic practice. Modern therapy, too, recognises the significance of the trance and, when we speak of somebody being "mesmerised", we do not suppose that person to be convulsed. Although emotion may be released - most particularly when the technique of hypno-analysis is used, based on the Freudian view that repressed material may be recovered from the unconscious mind - it is a sense of calm detachment, rather than crisis, which typifies the great majority of hypnotherapy sessions.

A typical modern hypno psychotherapy session, influenced by research and refinement in numerous countries since Mesmer's day, comprises induction, treatment strategy, and termination. In the induction, the therapist may, for example, speak slowly to the subject about the subject's becoming imaginatively involved in an experience of focussed awareness, whilst peripheral distractions fade - hence the subject may, with eyes closed, concentrate upon the progressive relaxation of his/her muscles to the exclusion of external events and stimuli. A good subject, well-motivated, optimistic about the therapy and confident in the therapist (criteria in which he/she may be educated in and out of hypnosis) is then ready to engage in any therapy intended to change inappropriate behaviour, thought or feeling. This means that virtually all, if not all, psychological techniques may be delivered via the medium of hypnosis. Because imaginative involvement, selective attention, and suspension of the critical process are all characteristic of the hypnotic state, hypno psychotherapy may often be the treatment of choice. The subject may move forward or backward in time, rehearse coping techniques, learn to correct types of thinking and feeling prejudicial to emotional well-being, and behaviour prejudicial to physical health, confront, but not exaggerate, life's problems whilst reappraising its potential, develop the ability to use self-hypnosis and perform "homework" tasks emphasising modern hypno psychotherapy's stress upon a subject's active involvement in the desired therapeutic outcome. At the termination, cues for subsequent positive thoughts, feelings or behaviour (post-hypnotic suggestions) may be introduced or re-iterated. Finally, the subject is gently returned from what has been described as an altered state of consciousness - the hypnotic state - to the everyday state of consciousness with its diffuse and distracting stimuli. Now discussion takes place (possibly an extension of dialogue whilst the subject was in hypnosis) and the hypnotic experience is examined in order to inform and enhance future therapy sessions i. e. the therapist defers to the source of expertise and control which lies not with the therapist, but with the subject.

Given a comfortable environment, a sympathetic and empathetic therapist who inspires confidence, and the subject's optimism about a realistic outcome, that outcome may be achieved. Because hypnosis is so fundamental, and universal, even if not recognised as such, it should not be withdrawn from the public domain, either in terms of training or availability as therapy. Rather, we should be aiming to widen such training and availability. Whilst hypnosis can stand alone as a form of therapy or form an adjunct to any other profession, it should become the property of no single profession. Virtually any book on the subject deals with the numerous theories of hypnosis. Essentially, the debate centres upon whether or not hypnosis is a special state. "State" theorists might argue that the subject's appearance and subjective reports of the hypnotic experience alone would support their theory. "Non-state" theorists might argue that hypnotic behaviour is the result of motivation, attitude and expectancy resulting in the subject's willingness to follow the therapist's suggestions. Perhaps the outcome will be some sort of compromise: 'Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, the achievement of which is greatly influenced by factors such as the subject's motivation, attitude and expectancy promoting a willingness to follow the therapist's suggestions'

Adaptations for children

Counseling and psychotherapy must be adapted to meet the developmental needs of children. Many counseling preparation programs include courses in human development. Since children often do not have the ability to articulate thoughts and feelings, counselors will use a variety of media such as crayons, paint, clay, puppets, bibliocounseling (books), toys, et cetera. The use of play therapy is often rooted in psychodynamic theory, but other approaches such as Solution Focused Brief Counseling may also employ the use of play in counseling. Play therapy is generally employed with children ages 3 to 11 play provides a way for Children to express their experiences and feelings through a natural self-guided Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and In many cases the counselor may prefer to work with the care taker of the child, especially if the child is younger than age four.

The therapeutic relationship

Research has shown that the quality of the relationship between the therapist and the client has a greater influence on client outcomes than the specific type of psychotherapy used by the therapist (this was first suggested by Saul Rosenzweig in 1936 ^[8]). Accordingly, most contemporary schools of psychotherapy focus on the healing power of the therapeutic relationship.

This research is extensively discussed (with many references) in Hubble, Duncan and Miller (1999)^[9] (quotes in this section are from this book) and in Wampold (2001). ^[10]

A literature review by M. J. Lambert (1992)^[11] estimated that 40% of client changes are due to extratherapeutic influences, 30% are due to the quality of the therapeutic relationship, 15% are due to expectancy (placebo) effects, and 15% are due to specific techniques. Extratherapeutic influences include client motivation and the severity of the problem:

For example, a withdrawn, alcoholic client, who is "dragged into therapy" by his or her spouse, possesses poor motivation for therapy, regards mental health professionals with suspicion, and harbors hostility toward others, is not nearly as likely to find relief as the client who is eager to discover how he or she has contributed to a failing marriage and expresses determination to make personal changes.

In one study, some highly motivated clients showed measurable improvement before their first session with the therapist, suggesting that just making the appointment can be an indicator of readiness to change. Tallman and Bohart (1999)^[12] note that:

Outside of therapy people rarely have a friend who will truly listen to them for more than 20 minutes (Stiles, 1995)^[13]. . . Further, friends and relatives often are involved in the problem and therefore do not provide a "safe outside perspective" which may be required. Nonetheless, as noted above, people often solve their problems by talking to friends, relatives, co-workers, religious leaders, or some other confidant in their lives, or by thinking and exploring themselves.

Confidentiality

Further information: client confidentiality, and physician-patient privilege

Confidentiality is an integral part of the therapeutic relationship and psychotherapy in general. Client confidentiality is the principle that an institution or individual should not reveal information about their clients to a third party without the consent of the client In the laws of many Common law jurisdictions the concept of legal Privilege, or the rule that certain conversations are so private and confidential that they cannot be used

Effectiveness and criticism

There is considerable controversy over which form of psychotherapy is most effective, and more specifically, which types of therapy are optimal for treating which sorts of problems. ^[14]

The dropout level is quite high, one meta-analysis of 125 studies concluded that mean dropout rate was 46. 86%. ^[15] The high level of dropout has raised some criticism about the relevance and efficacy of psychotherapy.

Psychotherapy outcome research—in which the effectiveness of psychotherapy is measured by questionnaires given to patients before, during, and after treatment—has had difficulty distinguishing between the success or failure of the different approaches to therapy. Not surprisingly, those who stay with their therapist for longer periods are more likely to report positively on what develops into a longer term relationship. Of course, this might mean that "treatment" is open-ended and related concerns regarding the total financial costs.

As early as 1952, in one of the earliest studies of psychotherapy treatment, Hans Eysenck reported that two thirds of therapy patients improved significantly or recovered on their own within two years, whether or not they received psychotherapy. Hans Jürgen Eysenck ( March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany - September 4, 1997 in London, UK) was a ^[16]

Many psychotherapists believe that the nuances of psychotherapy cannot be captured by questionnaire-style observation, and prefer to rely on their own clinical experiences and conceptual arguments to support the type of treatment they practice. This means that "if you believe you are doing some good, you are," a conception of dubious merit.

In 2001 Bruce Wampold, Ph. D. of the University of Wisconsin published "The Great Psychotherapy Debate"^[17]. In it Wampold, a former statistician who went on to train as a counselling psychologist, reported that

1. psychotherapy can be more effective than placebo,
2. no single treatment modality has the edge in efficacy,
3. factors common to different psychotherapies, such as whether or not the therapist has established a positive working alliance with the client/patient, account for much more of the variance in outcomes than specific techniques or modalities.

Although the Great Psychotherapy Debate dealt primarily with data on depressed patients, subsequent articles have made similar findings for post-traumatic stress disorder ^[18], and youth disorders ^[19]

Some report that by attempting to program or manualize treatment psychotherapists may actually be reducing efficacy, although the unstructured approach of many psychotherapists cannot appeal to patients motived to solve their difficulties through the application of specific techniques different from their past "mistakes. "

Critics of psychotherapy are skeptical of the healing power of a psychotherapeutic relationship. ^[20] Since any intervention takes time, critics note that the passage of time, without therapeutic intervention, can frequently result in psycho-social healing. ^[21]

Many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, research, and independent coping—present considerable value, indicating that psychotherapy is frequently inappropriate or unneeded by many. Critics note that humans have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems and finding solutions long before the advent of psychotherapy. ^[22]

Some psychotherapeutics have answered to scientific critique saying that psychotherapy is not a science since it is a craft. ^[23]

Further critiques have emerged from feminist, constructionist and discursive sources. Key to these is the issue of power. In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside of the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas. This means that alternative ideas (e. g. , feminist, economic, spiritual) are sometimes implicitly undermined. Critics suggest that we idealise the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relation. It is also fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified. So, while it is seldom intended, the therapist-client relationship always participates in society's power relations and political dynamics. ^[24]

References

• Asay, Ted P. , and Michael J. Lambert (1999). The Empirical Case for the Common Factors in Therapy: Quantitative Findings. In Hubble, Duncan, Miller (Eds), The Heart and Soul of Change (pp. 23-55)
• Field, Nathan Breakdown and Breakthrough: Psychotherapy in a New Dimension[5] (1996) Publisher: Routledge ISBN 0-415-10958-2.

Psychodynamic schools

• Aziz, Robert, C. G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity (1990), currently in its 10th printing, a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0166-9.
• Aziz, Robert, Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology in Carl B. Becker, ed. Asian and Jungian Views of Ethics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. ISBN 0-313-30452-1.
• Aziz, Robert, The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung (2007), a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 13:978-0-7914-6982-8.
• Bateman, Anthony; Brown, Dennis and Pedder, Jonathan (2000). Introduction to Psychotherapy: An Outline of Psychodynamic Principles and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20569-7.  
• Bateman, A. ; and Holmes, J. (1995). Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Contemporary Theory and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10739-3.  
• Oberst, U. E. and Stewart, A. E. (2003). Adlerian Psychotherapy: An Advanced Approach to Individual Psychology. New York: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 1-58391-122-7
• Ellenberger, Henri F. Henri F Ellenberger (1905-1993 was a Canadian - Swiss psychiatrist medical historian and criminologist sometimes considered the founding Historiographer (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. The Discovery of the Unconscious The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry is a classic work of Medical history and Historiography, written by the Swiss medical Basic Books.  

Humanistic schools

• Schneider (et al), Kirk (2001). The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-7619-2121-4.  

• Rowan, John (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy. Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23632-0.  

• Ansel Woldt, Sarah Toman (eds) (2005). Gestalt Therapy History, Theory, and Practice. Gestalt Press. ISBN 0-7619-2791-3 (pbk. ).  

• Crocker, Sylvia (1999). A Well-Lived Life, Essays in Gestalt Therapy. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-88163-287-2 (pbk. ).  

• Yontef, Gary (1993). Awareness, Dialogue, and Process. The Gestalt Journal Press, Inc. . ISBN 0-939266-20-2 (pbk. ).  

See also

Related topics

Counseling Main article Counselling psychology Clinical psychology Anti-psychiatry Psychiatry Psychology Defence mechanism

Mental health Mental health professional Neurosis Psychosis Social work Integrative Psychotherapy Gestalt Therapy

Related lists

• List of psychotherapies
• List of counseling topics
• Important publications in psychoanalysis and psychotherapy
• Timeline of psychotherapy
• Special:Whatlinkshere/Counselling psychology Links into Counseling Psychology
• Special:Whatlinkshere/Clinical psychology Links into Clinical Psychology

Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing See also Psychiatry See also Biopsychiatry controversy Anti-psychiatry refers to a post-1960s configuration of groups and theoretical constructs Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Social work is a discipline involving the application of Social theory and research methods to study and improve the lives of people groups and societies Integrative Psychotherapy involves the fusion of different schools of Psychotherapy. Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental This is an alphabetical List of Psychotherapies. It is an incomplete list and new or minor approaches are still being added The following is a list of Counseling topics Coaching mentoring intersections Coaching Systemic coaching Introducing Psychology Introducing Psychology This article is a compiled Timeline of Psychotherapy. A more general description of the development of the subject of Psychology can be found in the

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