An arrangement of psychoactive drugs

Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced changes in mood, sensation, thinking, and behavior. ^[1]

The field of psychopharmacology studies a wide range of substances with various types of psychoactive properties. The professional and commercial fields of pharmacology and psychopharmacology do not mainly focus on psychedelic or recreational drugs, as the majority of studies are conducted for the development, study, and use of drugs for the modification of behavior and the alleviation of symptoms, particularly in the treatment of mental disorders (psychiatric medication). Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Psychedelic drugs are Psychoactive drugs whose primary action is to alter the thought processes of the brain and perception of the mind Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized While studies are conducted on all psychoactives by both fields, psychopharmacology focuses primarily on the psychoactive and chemical interactions with the brain. The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS

Psychoactive drugs may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as chemical synthesis in the laboratory. A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products These drugs interact with particular target sites or receptors found in the nervous system to induce widespread changes in physiological or psychological functions. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself The specific interaction between drugs and their receptors is referred to as "drug action", and the widespread changes in physiological or psychological function is referred to as "drug effect". The action of drugs on the human body is called Pharmacodynamics, and what the body does with the drug is called Pharmacokinetics. Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions

Historical overview

The use of psychoactive drugs predates recorded history. A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain Hunter-gatherer societies tended to favor hallucinogenic drugs, and today their use can still be observed in many surviving tribal cultures. The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories Psychedelics, Dissociatives A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use The exact drug used depends on what the particular ecosystem a given tribe lives in can support, and are typically found growing wild. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Such drugs include various hallucinogenic mushrooms and cacti, along with many other plants. A cactus (plural cacti) is any member of the Spine plant family Cactaceae, native to the Americas These societies generally attach spiritual significance to such drug use, and often incorporate it into their religious practices.

The common muscimol-bearing mushroom Amanita muscaria, also known as the "Fly Agaric"

The common muscimol-bearing mushroom Amanita muscaria, also known as the "Fly Agaric", is frequently regarded as one of the first used psychoactive drugs, it is suspected to be the primary or active ingredient in the sacred drug of ancient India, known as Soma. Muscimol ( Agarin, Pantherine) is the major Psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, An active ingredient ( AI) also active pharmaceutical ingredient ( API) or bulk active, is the substance in a drug that is Pharmaceutically Soma ( Sanskrit: सोम) or Haoma ( Avestan) from Proto-Indo-Iranian * sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance ^[2] There are many modern theories citing the discovery of its psychoactive properties as far back as 10,000 BCE.

With the dawn of the Neolithic and the proliferation of agriculture, new entheogens came into use as a natural by-product of farming. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context Among them were opium, cannabis, and alcohol derived from the fermentation of cereals and fruits. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Cannabis ( Cán-na-bis) is a Genus of Flowering plants that includes three putative species Cannabis sativa subsp Most societies began developing herblores, lists of herbs which were good for treating various physical and mental ailments. Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as For example, St. John's Wort was traditionally prescribed in parts of Europe for depression (in addition to use as a general-purpose tea), and Chinese medicine developed elaborate lists of herbs and preparations. St John's wort (pronounced) used alone refers to the species Hypericum perforatum, also known as Tipton's Weed or Klamath weed, but with qualifiers is Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as

With the scientific revolution in Europe and the United States, the use of traditional herbal remedies fell out of favor with the mainstream medical establishment, although a few people continued to use and maintain knowledge of traditional European herblore. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In the early 20th century, scientists began reassessing this rejection of traditional herbs in medicine. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on A number of important psychiatric drugs have been developed as a by-product of the analysis of organic compounds present in traditional herbal remedies. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. In the latter half of the 20th century, research into new psychopharmacologic drugs exploded, with many new drugs being discovered, created, and tested. Many once-popular drugs are now out of favor, and there are fashions in psychiatric drugs, as with any other kind of drug. Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized

Only since the 1950s has the use of psychiatric drugs to restore mental health, or at least limit aberrant behavior, been a part of medical therapeutics, when a number of new classes of pharmacological agents were discovered, notably tranquillizers (e. Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. A sedative, or more specifically a sedative-hypnotic, is a substance that depresses the Central nervous system (CNS resulting in calmness relaxation sleepiness g. , chlorpromazine, reserpine, and other milder agents) and antidepressants (including the highly effective group known as tricyclic antidepressants), and LSD was popularized among many psychiatrists for a certain time as a mental miracle drug capable of curing all manner of problems. Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Reserpine is an Indole Alkaloid Antipsychotic and Antihypertensive drug that has been used for the control of high blood pressure An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Tricyclic antidepressants (abbreviation TCAs) are a class of Antidepressant drugs first used in the 1950s Lithium is widely used to allay the symptoms of affective disorders and especially to prevent recurrences of both the manic and the depressed episodes in manic-depressive individuals. Lithium (ˈlɪθiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Li and Atomic number 3 The affective spectrum is a grouping of related psychiatric and medical disorders which may accompany bipolar, unipolar, and Schizoaffective The many commercially marketed antipsychotic agents (including thiothixene, chlorpromazine, haloperidol, and thioridazine) all share the common property of blocking the dopamine receptors in the brain. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. Thiothixene (sold as Navane) is a Thioxanthene drug used as a Typical antipsychotic medication Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Haloperidol is a Typical antipsychotic. It is in the Butyrophenone class of Antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar Thioridazine is a Piperidine Antipsychotic drug belonging to the Phenothiazine drug group and was previously widely used in the treatment Dopamine receptors are a class of metabotropic G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the Vertebrate Central nervous system (CNS (Dopamine acts to help transmit nerve impulses in the brain. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates ) Since scientists have found a direct relationship between dopamine blockage and reduction of schizophrenic symptoms, many believe that schizophrenia may be related to excess dopamine. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn ^[3]

These drugs contrast sharply with the hypnotic and sedative drugs that formerly were in use and that clouded the patient's consciousness and impaired his/her motor and perceptual abilities. For the state of mind see Hypnosis. Hypnotic drugs induce Sleep (which differentiates them from the Sedative A sedative, or more specifically a sedative-hypnotic, is a substance that depresses the Central nervous system (CNS resulting in calmness relaxation sleepiness Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the The antipsychotic drugs can allay the symptoms of anxiety and reduce agitation, delusions, and hallucinations, and the antidepressants lift spirits and quell suicidal impulses. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Suicidal ideation is a common medical term for thoughts about Suicide, which may be as detailed as a formulated plan without the suicidal act itself The heavy prescription use of drugs to reduce agitation and quell anxiety has led, however, to what many psychiatrists consider an overuse of such medications. ^[4] An overdose of a tranquilizer may cause loss of muscular coordination and slowing of reflexes, and prolonged use can lead to addiction. The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Toxic side effects such as jaundice psychoses, dependency, or a reaction similar to Parkinson's disease may develop. Physical dependence (or drug dependence) refers to a state resulting from habitual use of a drug where negative physical Withdrawal symptoms result from abrupt discontinuation Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's The drugs may produce other minor symptoms (e. g. , heart palpitations, rapid pulse, sweating) because of their action on the autonomic nervous system. &trade The autonomic nervous system ( ANS) (or visceral nervous system) is the part of the Peripheral nervous system that acts as a Control

Psychopharmacological research

Main articles: Psychoactive substances and Psychiatric medication

In psychopharmacology, researchers are interested in any substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier and thus has an effect on behavior, mood or cognition. A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized The blood-brain barrier (BBB is a metabolic or cellular structure in the Central nervous system (CNS that restricts the passage of various chemical substances and microscopic Drugs are researched for their physicochemical properties, physical side effects, and psychological side effects. Side Effect were an influential Disco band that recorded between 1972 and 1995 Researchers in psychopharmacology study a variety of different psychoactive substances that include alcohol, cannabinoids, club drugs, hallucinogens, opiates, nicotine and caffeine, psychomotor stimulants, inhalants, and anabolic-androgenic steroids. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Cannabinoids ( are a group of terpeno[[phenol]]ic compounds present in Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa L Club drugs are a loosely-defined category of Recreational drugs which are associated with discothèques in the 1970s and Dance clubs parties and Raves in The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories Psychedelics, Dissociatives For other uses see Opiate (disambiguation, or for the class of drugs see Opioid. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness Anabolic steroids, or anabolic-androgenic steroids ( AAS) are a class of Steroid hormones related to the hormone Testosterone. They also study drugs used in the treatment of affective and anxiety disorders, as well as schizophrenia. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn

Clinical studies are often very specific, typically beginning with animal testing, and ending with human testing. In the human testing phase, there is often a group of subjects, one group is given a placebo, and the other is administered a carefully measured therapeutic dose of the drug in question. Placebo is a substance or procedure a patient accepts as medicine or therapy but which has no specific therapeutic activity The therapeutic index (also known as therapeutic ratio) is a comparison of the amount of a therapeutic agent that causes the therapeutic effect to the amount that causes toxic After all of the testing is completed, the drug is proposed to the concerned regulatory authority (e. g. the U. S. FDA), and is either commercially introduced to the public, introduced to the public via prescription, or deemed safe enough for over the counter sale. A prescription (℞ is a health-care program implemented by a Physician or other medical practitioner in the form of instructions that govern the plan of care for an individual Over-the-counter (OTC drugs are medicines that may be sold without a prescription, in contrast to Prescription drugs The name "over-the-counter"

Though particular drugs are prescribed for specific symptoms or syndromes, they are usually not specific to the treatment of any single mental disorder. Because of their ability to modify the behavior of even the most disturbed patients, the antipsychotic, antianxiety, and antidepressant agents have greatly affected the management of the hospitalized mentally ill, enabling hospital staff to devote more of their attention to therapeutic efforts and enabling many patients to lead relatively normal lives outside of the hospital.

See also

• Mental health
• Psychiatric medication
• Psychiatry

References

Further reading

Peer-reviewed journals

• Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, American Psychological Association
• Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
• Psychopharmacology, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg

External links

• Psychopharmacology – The Fourth Generation of Progress — American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP)
• Psychiatric treatments and medication
• Biological Psychology, fourth edition
• Bibliographical history of Psychopharmacology and Pharmacopsychology — Advances in the History of Psychology, York University