Part of a series of articles on Psychoanalysis

Constructs Psychosexual development Psychosocial development Conscious • Preconscious • Unconscious Psychic Apparatus Id, ego, and super-ego Libido • Drive Transference • Sublimation • Resistance Important figures Sigmund Freud • Carl Jung Alfred Adler • Otto Rank Anna Freud • Margaret Mahler Karen Horney • Jacques Lacan Ronald Fairbairn • Melanie Klein Harry Stack Sullivan Erik Erikson • Nancy Chodorow Susan Sutherland Isaacs Ernest Jones • Heinz Kohut Important works The Interpretation of Dreams Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" Civilization and Its Discontents Schools of thought Self psychology • Lacanian Analytical psychology • Object relations Interpersonal • Relational Ego psychology

Psychology portal This box: view • talk • edit

Psychoanalysis is a body of knowledge developed by Sigmund Freud and his followers, devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior. The concept of psychosexual development, as envisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century is a central element in his sexual Psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explains Eight Stages through which a healthily developing Human should pass from Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the See also Consciousness Jacques Lacan Philosophy of mind Rapid eye movement sleep Many observers throughout history have argued that there are influences on Consciousness from other parts of the Mind. The term psychic apparatus (sometimes translated as psychical apparatus or mental apparatus) is a central concept of Freudian Metapsychology. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Libido in its common usage means Sexual desire however more technical definitions such as those found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general referring to libido Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics Transference is a phenomenon in Psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings for one person to another In Psychology, sublimation is a coping mechanism It has its roots in the Nietzschean & psychoanalytical approach and is often also referred to as a type Psychological resistance is the phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly oppose changing their behavior or refuse to discuss Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Alfred Adler ( February 7 1870 &ndash May 28 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of Otto Rank ( April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939) was an Austrian Psychoanalyst, writer teacher and therapist Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud Margaret Schönberger Mahler ( May 10 1897 – October 2 1985) was a Hungarian physician who later became interested in psychiatry Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye" /hɔrnaɪ/ born Danielsen ( September 16, 1885 – December 4, 1952) was a German Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst William Ronald Dodds Fairbairn ( 11 August 1889 - 31 December 1964) was a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. Melanie Klein ( March 30 1882 – September 22 1960) was an Austrian born Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan ( February 21, 1892, Norwich New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France Erik Homburger Erikson ( June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994) was born in Frankfurt to Danish parents but later obtained Nancy Julia Chodorow is a feminist sociologist and psychoanalyst born 20 January 1944 in New York City. Susan Sutherland Isaacs (née Fairhurst (1885–1948 was an English educational Psychologist and Psychoanalyst. Alfred Ernest Jones ( January 1, 1879 – February 11, 1958) Welsh Neurologist, Psychoanalyst and Sigmund Heinz Kohut May 3 1913 &ndash October 8 1981 is best known for his development of Self Psychology, a school of thought The Interpretation of Dreams is a book by Sigmund Freud. The first edition was first published in German in November 1899 as Die Traumdeutung The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis (Les quatres concepts fondamentaux de la psychanalyse is the English translation of one of the pivotal works of Jacques " Beyond the Pleasure Principle " (first published in German in 1920 as Jenseits des Lustprinzips) is an essay by Sigmund Freud. Civilization and Its Discontents is a book by Sigmund Freud. Written in 1929 and first published in German in 1930 as Das Unbehagen in der Kultur Self psychology is a school of Psychoanalytic theory and therapy created by Heinz Kohut and developed in the United States. Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Analytical psychology (or Jungian psychology) refers to the school of Psychology originating from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, and then advanced Object relations theory is a psychodynamic theory within Psychoanalytic psychology. Interpersonal psychoanalysis is based on the theories of Harry Stack Sullivan, an American Psychiatrist who believed that the details of patient's interpersonal interactions Relational psychoanalysis is a school of Psychoanalysis in the United States that emphasizes the role of real and imagined relationships with others in Mental disorder Ego psychology is a school of Psychoanalysis rooted in Sigmund Freud 's structural -- id-ego-superego -- model of the mind Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded It has three applications: 1) a method of investigation of the mind; 2) a systematized body of knowledge about human behavior; and 3) a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours ^[1] Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis there are at least 20 different theoretical orientations regarding the underlying theory of understanding of human mentation and human development. The various approaches in treatment called "psychoanalytic" vary as much as the different theories do. In addition, the term refers to a method of studying child development. Child development refers to the biological and psychological changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of Adolescence, as the individual

Freudian psychoanalysis refers to a specific type of treatment in which the "analysand" (analytic patient) verbalizes thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the unconscious conflicts causing the patient's symptoms and character problems, and interprets them for the patient to create insight for resolution of the problems. Free association (Psychodynamic theory is a technique used in Psychology, devised by Sigmund Freud. See Fantasy for an account of the literary genre involving the development of common or popular fantasies Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep.

The specifics of the analyst's interventions typically include confronting and clarifying the patient's pathological defenses, wishes and guilt. ---- Guilt is the Fact, state or Verdict (by a Court or other Tribunal) of an Offence, Crime, Violation Through the analysis of conflicts, including those contributing to resistance and those involving transference onto the analyst of distorted reactions, psychoanalytic treatment can clarify how patients unconsciously are their own worst enemies: how unconscious, symbolic reactions that have been stimulated by experience are causing symptoms. Psychological resistance is the phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly oppose changing their behavior or refuse to discuss Transference is a phenomenon in Psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings for one person to another

Contents 1 A Brief History of the Evolution of Psychoanalytic Theory 2 Theories 2.1 Classical Psychoanalytic Theory 3 Psychopathology (mental disturbances) 4 Indications and contraindications for analytic treatment 5 Technique 5.1 Variations in technique 5.2 The widening scope 6 Cost and length of treatment 6.1 Contributing factors for the indication and contraindication of psychoanalytic treatment 7 Curiosities, archaic ideas, and controversy 7.1 Procedures and models for the indication of psychoanalytical therapy 8 Training 9 Psychoanalytical Organizations 10 Other Psychoanalytic Schools 11 Efficacy and empirical research 12 Psychoanalysis today 13 References 14 Cultural adaptations 15 Play therapy, art therapy, and other therapies 16 Criticisms 16.1 Challenges to scientific validity 16.2 Theoretical criticism 17 See also 18 References 19 Literature 20 Critiques of psychoanalysis 21 External links

A Brief History of the Evolution of Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalysis was developed in Vienna in the 1890s by Sigmund Freud, a neurologist interested in finding an effective treatment for patients with neurotic or hysterical symptoms. This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Hysteria in its colloquial use describes a state of Mind, one of unmanageable Fear or Emotional excesses Freud had become sensitized to the existence of mental processes that were not conscious as a result of his neurological consulting job at the Children's Hospital, where he noticed that many aphasic children had no organic cause for their symptoms. He wrote a monograph about this subject. ^[2] In the late 1880s, Freud obtained a grant to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, the famed neurologist and syphilologist, at the Salpêtrière in Paris. Jean-Martin Charcot ( 29 November 1825 – 16 August 1893) was a French Neurologist and professor of Anatomical pathology Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital ( Groupe hospitalier de la Pitié-Salpétrière) is a world-renowned Teaching hospital located in Paris, France. Charcot had become interested in patients who had symptoms that mimicked general paresis, the psychotic illness that occurs due to tertiary syphilis. General paresis, also known as general paralysis of the insane or paralytic dementia, is a now-rare neuropsychiatric disorder affecting the brain Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. Charcot had found that many patients experienced paralyses, pains, coughs, and a variety of other symptoms with no demonstrable physical cause. Prior to Charcot's work, women with these symptoms were thought to have a wandering uterus (the name hysteria means "uterus" in Greek), but Freud learned that men could have psychosomatic symptoms as well. The uterus (from the Latin word for womb) is the major Female reproductive organ of most Mammals including Humans One end the Psychosomatic medicine is an interdisciplinary medical field studying psychosomatic illness, now more commonly referred to as psychophysiologic illness or disorder He also became aware of an experimental treatment for hysteria utilized by his mentor and colleague, Dr. Josef Breuer. Josef Breuer ( January 15, 1842 – June 20, 1925) was an Austrian Physician whose works lay the foundation of Psychoanalysis The treatment was a combination of hypnotism and catharsis which utilized abreaction (ventilation of emotion). Hypnosis is often thought to be a wakeful state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility with diminished peripheral awareness Catharsis ( Κάθαρσις) is a Greek word meaning "purification" "cleansing" or "clarification Abreaction is a psychoanalytical term for reliving an experience in order to purge it of its emotional excesses a type of Catharsis. This treatment was used to treat the hysterical symptoms of Dr. Breuer's now famous patient, Anna O.

Freud's first theory to explain hysterical symptoms was the so-called "seduction theory". Anna O was the Pseudonym of a patient of Josef Breuer, who published her case study in his book Studies on Hysteria, written in collaboration Freud's seduction theory was a Hypothesis posited in the mid-1890s by Sigmund Freud that he believed provided the solution to the problem of the origins of hysteria Since his patients under treatment with this new method "remembered" incidents of having been sexually seduced in childhood, Freud believed that they had actually been abused only to later repress those memories. This led to his publication with Dr. Breuer in 1893 of case reports of the treatment of hysteria. ^[3] This first theory became untenable as an explanation of all incidents of hysteria. As a result of his work with his patients, Freud learned that the majority complained of sexual problems, especially coitus interruptus as birth control. He suspected their problems stemmed from cultural restrictions on sexual expression and that their sexual wishes and fantasies had been repressed. Between this discovery of the unexpressed sexual desires and the relief of the symptoms by abreaction, Freud began to theorize that the unconscious mind had determining effects on hysterical symptoms. His first comprehensive attempt at an explanatory theory was the then unpublished Project for a Scientific Psychology in 1895. ^[4] In this work Freud attempted to develop a neurophysiologic theory based on transfer of energy by the neurons in the brain in order to explain unconscious mechanisms. He abandoned the project when he came to realize that there was a complicated psychological process involved over and above neuronal activity. By 1900, Freud had discovered that dreams had symbolic significance, and generally were specific to the dreamer. Realizing that dreams were, as he said, the "royal road to the unconscious," Freud formulated his second psychological theory -- that of there being an unconscious "primary process" consisting of symbolic and condensed thoughts, and a "secondary process" of logical, conscious thoughts. This theory was published in his 1900 opus magnum, The Interpretation of Dreams. Magnum opus (sometimes Opus magnum, plural magna opera) from the Latin meaning great work, refers to the best the greatest The Interpretation of Dreams is a book by Sigmund Freud. The first edition was first published in German in November 1899 as Die Traumdeutung ^[5] Chapter VII was a re-working of the earlier "Project" and Freud outlined his "Topographic Theory". In this theory, which was mostly later supplanted by the Structural Theory, unacceptable sexual wishes were repressed into the "System Unconscious", unconscious due to society's condemnation of premarital sexual activity, and this repression created anxiety. Freud also discovered what most of us take for granted today: that dreams were symbolic and specific to the dreamer. Often, dreams give clues to unconscious conflicts, and for this reason, Freud referred to dreams as the "royal road to the Unconscious. " This "topographic theory" is still popular in much of Europe, although it has been superseded in much of North America. ^[6]

In 1905, Freud published Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality ^[7]in which he laid out his discovery of so-called psychosexual phases: oral (ages 0-2), anal (2-4), phallic-oedipal (today called 1st genital) (3-6), latency (6-puberty), and mature genital (puberty-onward). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality is a 1905 work by Sigmund Freud which advanced his theory of sexuality, in particular its relation to The concept of psychosexual development, as envisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century is a central element in his sexual His early formulation included the idea that because of societal restrictions, sexual wishes were repressed into an unconscious state, and that the energy of these unconscious wishes could be turned into anxiety or physical symptoms. Therefore the early treatment techniques, including hypnotism and abreaction, were designed to make the unconscious conscious in order to relieve the pressure and the apparently resulting symptoms.

In On Narcissism (1915) ^[8] Freud turned his attention to the subject of narcissism. On Narcissism was a 1914 book by Sigmund Freud, widely considered an introduction to Freud's theories of Narcissism. Still utilizing an energic system, Freud conceptualized the question of energy directed at the self versus energy directed at others, called cathexis. This page describes the general psychological term For the Star Trek Voyager episode of the same name see Cathexis (Voyager episode. By 1917, In "Mourning and Melancholia",he suggested that certain depressions were caused by turning guilt-ridden anger on the self. ^[9] In 1919 in "A Child is Being Beaten" he began to address the problems of self-destructive behavior (moral masochism) and frank sexual masochism. ^[10] Based on his experience with depressed and self-destructive patients, and pondering the carnage of WW I, Freud became dissatisfied with considering only oral and sexual motivations for behavior. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All By 1920, Freud addressed the power of identification (with the leader and with other members) in groups as a motivation for behavior (Group Psychology and Analysis of the Ego). ^[11] In that same year (1920) Freud suggested his "dual drive" theory of sexuality and aggression in, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, to try to begin to explain human destructiveness. " Beyond the Pleasure Principle " (first published in German in 1920 as Jenseits des Lustprinzips) is an essay by Sigmund Freud. ^[12]

The pinnacle year of theory for Freud occurred in 1923, when he presented his new "structural theory" of an id, ego, and superego in a book entitled, The Ego and the Id. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of "The Ego and the Id" is a prominent paper by the Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. ^[13] Therein, he revised the whole theory of mental functioning, now considering that repression was only one of many defense mechanisms, and that it occurred to reduce anxiety. Note the 180 degree shift - earlier he had thought that repression caused anxiety. Moreover, in 1926, in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, Freud laid out how intrapsychic conflict among drive and superego (wishes and guilt) caused anxiety, and how that anxiety could lead to an inhibition of mental functions, such as intellect and speech. Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components ^[14] By 1936, the "Principle of Multiple Function" was clarified by Robert Waelder. ^[15] He widened the formulation that psychological symptoms were caused by and relieved conflict simultaneously. Moreover, symptoms (such as phobias and compulsions) each represented elements of some drive wish (sexual and/or aggressive), superego (guilt), anxiety, reality, and defenses. Phobias Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term are the most common form of Anxiety disorders An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health Compulsive behavior is behavior which a person does "compulsively" i Also in 1936, Anna Freud, Sigmund's famous daughter, published her seminal book, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, outlining numerous ways the mind could shut upsetting things out of consciousness. Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud ^[16]

Although criticized since its inception, psychoanalysis has been thriving as a research tool into childhood development ^[17], and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances^[18]. In the 1960s, Freud's early thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development, many of which modified the timing and normality of several of Freud's theories (which had been gleaned from the treatment of women with mental disturbances). Several researchers, ^[19] followed Karen Horney's studies of societal pressures that influence the development of women. Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye" /hɔrnaɪ/ born Danielsen ( September 16, 1885 – December 4, 1952) was a German Most contemporary North American psychoanalysts employ theories that, while based on those of Sigmund Freud, include many modifications of theory and practice developed since his death in 1939.

Masturbation was later added as another "royal road to the unconscious. " The definitive text, covering the developmental and symbolic elements of masturbation, was prepared by Marcus and Francis (1975) in Masturbation - from Infancy to Senescence. ^[20]

Today, there are approximately 35 training institutes for psychoanalysis in the United States accredited by the American Psychoanalytic Association [1] ^[21]which is a component organization of the International Psychoanalytical Association, and there are over 3,000 graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the United States. The International Psychoanalytical Association accredits psychoanalytic training centers throughout the rest of the world, including countries such as Serbia, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, and many others, as well as about six institutes directly in the U. S.

Theories

The predominant psychoanalytic theories include

Classical Psychoanalytic Theory

• Topographic theory, which was first described by Freud in "the Interpretation of Dreams" (1900) ^[22] The theory posits that the mental apparatus can be divided in to the systems Conscious, Pre-conscious and Unconsious. These systems are not anatomical structures of the brain but, rather, mental processes. Although Freud retained this theory throughout his life he largely replaced it with the Structural theory. The Topographic theory remains as one of the metapsychological points of view for describing how the mind functions in classical psychoanalytic theory.
• Structural Theory, which breaks the mind up into the id, the ego, and the superego. Actually, in German, the word for id is "es," which means "it. " The word ego was coined by Freud's translators; Freud used the term, "ich" meaning "I" in English. Freud called the superego the "Über-ich. " The id was designated as the repository of sexual and aggressive wishes, which Freud called "drives. " The ego was composed of those forces that opposed the drives -- defensive operations. The superego was Freud's term for the conscience -- values and ideals, shame and guilt. One problem Brenner (2006) later found with this theory (see above) was that Freud also suggested that forgotten thoughts ("the repressed") were also "located" in the id. However, Freud here realized that drives could be conscious or unconscious, and that consciousness vs. unconsciousness was a quality of any mental operation or any mental conflict. Forgetting things could be done on purpose, or not. People could be aware of guilt, or not aware.
• Ego psychology, which was initially suggested by Freud in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (1926). Ego psychology is a school of Psychoanalysis rooted in Sigmund Freud 's structural -- id-ego-superego -- model of the mind The theory was refined by Hartmann, Loewenstein, and Kris in a series of papers and books from 1939 through the late 1960s. Heinz Hartmann (1894 in Vienna, Austria - 1970 in Stony Point, New York) was a Psychiatrist and Psychoanalyst. Leo Bellak was a later contributor. This series of constructs, paralleling some of the later developments of cognitive theory, includes the notions of autonomous ego functions: mental functions not dependent, at least in origin, on intrapsychic conflict. Such functions include: sensory perception, motor control, symbolic thought, logical thought, speech, abstraction, integration (synthesis), orientation, concentration, judgment about danger, reality testing, adaptive ability, executive decision-making, hygiene, and self-preservation. Freud noted that inhibition is one method that the mind may utilize to interfere with any of these functions in order to avoid painful emotions. Hartmann (1950s) pointed out that there may be delays or deficits in such functions. Frosch (1964) described differences in those people who demonstrated damage to their relationship to reality, but who seemed able to test it. Deficits in the capacity to organize thought are sometimes referred to as blocking or loose associations (Bleuler), and are characteristic of the schizophrenias. Paul Eugen Bleuler ( April 30, 1857 – July 15, 1939) was a Swiss psychiatrist most notable for his contributions to the Deficits in abstraction ability and self-preservation also suggest psychosis in adults. Deficits in orientation and sensorium are often indicative of a medical illness affecting the brain (and therefore, autonomous ego functions). The term sensorium (plural sensoria refers to the sum of an organism's Perception, the "seat of Sensation " where it experiences and interprets the Deficits in certain ego functions are routinely found in severely sexually or physically abused children, where powerful affects generated throughout childhood seem to have eroded some functional development. Ego strengths, later described by Kernberg (1975), include the capacities to control oral, sexual, and destructive impulses; to tolerate painful affects without falling apart; and to prevent the eruption into consciousness of bizarre symbolic fantasy. Otto F Kernberg (born 1928 is Psychoanalyst and Professor of Psychiatry at Weill Medical College of Cornell University. Synthetic functions, in contrast to autonomous functions, arise from the developmet of the ego and serve the purpose of managing conflictual processes. Defenses are an example of synthetic functions and serve the purpose of protecting the conscious mind from awareness of forbidden impulses and thoughts. One purpose of ego psychology has been to emphasize that there are mental functions that can be considered to be basic, and not the derivatives of wishes, affects, or defenses. However, it is important to note that autonomous ego functions can be secondarily affected because of unconsious conflict. For example, a patient may have an hysterical amnesia (memory being an autonomous function) because of intrapsychic conflict (wishing not to remember because it is too painful).

• Taken together, the above theories present a group of Metapsychological Assumptions. Therefore, the inclusive group of the different classical theories provides a cross-sectional view of human mentation. There are six "points of view", five of which were described by Freud and a sixth added by Hartmann. Unconscious processes can therefore be evaluated from each of these six points of view. The "points of view are" are: 1. Topographic 2. Dynamic (the theory of conflict) 3. Economic (the theory of energy flow) 4. Structural 5. Genetic (propositions concerning origin and development of psychological funtions) and 6. Adaptational (psychological phenomena as it relates to the external world). ^[23]

• Conflict Theory is an update and revision of structural theory that does away with some of the more arcane features of structural theory (such as where repressed thoughts are stored). For a position in the religion-science debate with a similar name see Conflict thesis Conflict theory emphasizes the role that a person's Conflict theory looks at how emotional symptoms and character traits are complex solutions to intrapsychic conflict. See Brenner (2006), Psychoanalysis: Mind and Meaning, New York: Psychoanalytic Quarterly Press. This revision of Freud's structural theory (Freud, 1923, 1926) dispenses with the concepts of a fixed id, ego and superego, and instead posits unconscious and conscious conflict among wishes (dependent, controlling, sexual, and aggressive), guilt and shame, emotions (especially anxiety and depressive affect), and defensive operations that shut off from consciousness some aspect of the others. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Moreover, healthy functioning (adaptive) is also determined, to a great extent, by resolutions of conflict. A major goal of modern conflict theorist analysts is to attempt to change the balance of conflict through making aspects of the less adaptive solutions (also called compromise formations) conscious so that they can be rethought, and more adaptive solutions found. Current theoreticians following Brenner's many suggestions (see especially Brenner's 1982 book, "The Mind in Conflict") include Sandor Abend, MD (Abend, Porder, & Willick, (1983), Borderline Patients: Clinical Perspectives), Jacob Arlow (Arlow and Brenner (1964), Psychoanalytic Concepts and the Structural Theory), and Jerome Blackman (2003), 101 Defenses: How the Mind Shields Itself). Conflict theory is one of the analytic theories taught in psychoanalytic institutes, throughout the United States, accredited by the American Psychoanalytic Association.

• Object relations theory, which attempts to explain vicissitudes of human relationships through a study of how internal representations of self and of others are structured. Object relations theory is a psychodynamic theory within Psychoanalytic psychology. The clinical problems that suggest object relations problems (usually developmental delays throughout life) include disturbances in an individual's capacity to feel warmth, empathy, trust, sense of security, identity stability, consistent emotional closeness, and stability in relationships with chosen other human beings. (It is not suggested that one should trust everyone, for example). Concepts regarding internal representations (also sometimes termed, "introjects," "self and object representations," or "internalizations of self and other") although often attributed to Melanie Klein, were actually first mentioned by Sigmund Freud in his early concepts of drive theory (1905, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality). Melanie Klein ( March 30 1882 – September 22 1960) was an Austrian born Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality is a 1905 work by Sigmund Freud which advanced his theory of sexuality, in particular its relation to Freud's 1917 paper "Mourning and Melancholia", for example, hypothesized that unresolved grief was caused by the survivor's internalized image of the deceased becoming fused with that of the survivor, and then the survivor shifting unacceptable anger toward the deceased onto the now complex self image. Vamik Volkan, in "Linking Objects and Linking Phenomena," expanded on Freud's thoughts on this, describing the syndromes of "Established pathological mourning" vs. Vamık D Volkan MD (born 1932 is an emeritus professor of Psychiatry at the University of Virginia School of Medicine. "reactive depression" based on similar dynamics. Melanie Klein's hypotheses regarding internalizations during the first year of life, leading to paranoid and depressive positions, were later challenged by Rene Spitz (e. René Árpád Spitz ( 1887 &ndash November 11, 1974) was an American psychoanalyst of Hungarian origin g. , The First Year of Life, 1965), who divided the first year of life into a coenesthetic phase of the first six months, and then a diacritic phase for the second six months. Margaret Mahler (Mahler, Fine, and Bergman (1975), "The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant") and her group, first in New York, then in Philadelphia, described distinct phases and subphases of child development leading to "separation-individuation" during the first three years of life, stressing the importance of constancy of parental figures, in the face of the child's destructive aggression, to the child's internalizations, stability of affect management, and ability to develop healthy autonomy. Margaret Schönberger Mahler ( May 10 1897 – October 2 1985) was a Hungarian physician who later became interested in psychiatry Later developers of the theory of self and object constancy as it affects adult psychiatric problems such as psychosis and borderline states have been John Frosch, Otto Kernberg, and Salman Akhtar. Salman Akhtar (born July 31, 1946 in Lucknow India) is a psychoanalyst who also holds a professorship at the Jefferson Medical College in Peter Blos described (1960, in a book called On Adolescence) how similar separation-individuation struggles occur during adolescence, of course with a different outcome from the first three years of life: the teen usually, eventually, leaves the parents' house (this varies with the culture). During adolescence, Erik Erikson (1950-1960s) described the "identity crisis," that involves identity-diffusion anxiety. Erik Homburger Erikson ( June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994) was born in Frankfurt to Danish parents but later obtained In order for an adult to be able to experience "Warm-ETHICS" (warmth, empathy, trust, holding environment (Winnicott), identity, closeness, and stability) in relationships (see Blackman (2003), 101 Defenses: How the Mind Shields Itself), the teenager must resolve the problems with identity and redevelop self and object constancy. Donald Woods Winnicott ( 7 April, 1896 - January 28, 1971) was a pediatrician and psychoanalyst

• Self psychology, which emphasizes the development of a stable sense of self through empathic contacts with other humans, and first of all with the maternal figure conceived as "selfobject" was developed originally by Heinz Kohut, and has been elucidated by the Ornsteins and Arnold Goldberg. Self psychology is a school of Psychoanalytic theory and therapy created by Heinz Kohut and developed in the United States. The self is a key construct in several schools of Psychology, broadly referring to the cognitive representation of one's identity Heinz Kohut May 3 1913 &ndash October 8 1981 is best known for his development of Self Psychology, a school of thought Marian Tolpin explicated the need for "transmuting internalizations" (1971) during treatment, to correct what Kohut referred to as a disturbance in the "self-object" internalizations from parents.

• Lacanian psychoanalysis, which integrates psychoanalysis with semiotics and Hegelian philosophy, is popular in France and Latin America. Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology is the study of sign processes (semiosis or signification and communication signs and Symbols both Lacanian psychoanalysis is a departure from the traditional British and American psychoanalysis, which is predominantly Ego psychology. Ego psychology is a school of Psychoanalysis rooted in Sigmund Freud 's structural -- id-ego-superego -- model of the mind Lacan frequently used the phrase "retourner à Freud" in his seminars and writings meaning "back to Freud" as he claimed that his theories were an extension of Freud's own, contrary to those of Anna Freud, the Ego Psychology, object relations and "self" theories. Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud Object relations theory is a psychodynamic theory within Psychoanalytic psychology. Lacan's first major contributions concern the "mirror stage", the Real, the Imaginary and the Symbolic, and the claim the "unconscious is structured as a language". The Mirror stage was the subject of Jacques Lacan 's first official contribution to Psychoanalytic theory (Fourteenth International Psychoanalytical Congress at

• Feminist theory of psychoanalysis, articulated mainly by Julia Kristeva (the "semiotic" and "abjection"), Luce Irigaray (challenging "phallogocentrism") and Bracha Ettinger (the "matrixial trans-subjectivity" and the "primal mother-phantasies"), is informed both by Freud, Lacan and the object relations theory. Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Julia Kristeva (Юлия Кръстева (born 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian - French Philosopher, Literary critic, Luce Irigaray (born 1932 Belgium) is a French feminist, Philosopher, Linguist, psychoanalytic and cultural theorist Bracha L Ettinger (born 1951 also known as Bracha Ettinger, Bracha Lichtenberg Ettinger, Hebrew ברכה אטינגר, ברכה ליכטנברג-אטינגר

• Interpersonal psychoanalysis, which accents the nuances of interpersonal interactions, was first introduced by Harry Stack Sullivan, MD, and developed further by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. Interpersonal psychoanalysis is based on the theories of Harry Stack Sullivan, an American Psychiatrist who believed that the details of patient's interpersonal interactions Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan ( February 21, 1892, Norwich New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France Frieda Fromm-Reichmann ( October 23, 1889 - April 28 1957) was a German Psychiatrist and contemporary of Sigmund Freud It is the primary theory, still taught, at the William Alanson White Center.

• Relational psychoanalysis, which combines interpersonal psychoanalysis with object-relations theory and with Inter-subjective theory as critical for mental health, was introduced by Stephen Mitchell. Relational psychoanalysis is a school of Psychoanalysis in the United States that emphasizes the role of real and imagined relationships with others in Mental disorder Stephen A Mitchell ( July 23 1946 &ndash December 21 2000) was a clinical psychologist and psychoanalyst whose writings helped to clarify ^[24] Relational psychoanalysis emphasizes how the individual's personality is shaped by both real and imagined relationships with others, and how these relationship patterns are re-enacted in the interactions between analyst and patient. Fonagy and Target, in London, have propounded their view of the necessity of helping certain detached, isolated patients, develop the capacity for "mentalization" associated with thinking about relationships and themselves.

• Modern psychoanalysis, a body of theoretical and clinical knowledge developed by Hyman Spotnitz and his colleagues, extended Freud's theories so as to make them applicable to the full spectrum of emotional disorders. Modern psychoanalysis is a specific sub-discipline in the field of psychodynamic psychologies Hyman Spotnitz ( September 29, 1908 - April 18, 2008) was an American Psychoanalyst and Psychiatrist who pioneered Modern psychoanalytic interventions are primarily intended to provide an emotional-maturational communication to the patient, rather than to promote intellectual insight.

Although these theoretical "schools" differ, most of them continue to stress the strong influence of unconscious elements affecting people's mental lives. There has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conflicting theory (cf. the work of Theodore Dorpat, B. Killingmo, and S. Akhtar). As in all fields of medicine (for example, [2]}, there are some persistent conflicts regarding specific causes of some syndromes, and disputes regarding the best treatment techniques.

Today psychoanalytic ideas are embedded in the culture, especially in childcare, education, literary criticism, cultural studies, and in psychiatry, particularly medical and non-medical psychotherapy. Childcare (also written child care and babycare is the act of caring for and supervising minor Children (In Australia Daycare is referred Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Literary criticism is the study discussion evaluation and interpretation of Literature. Cultural studies is an academic discipline which combines Political economy, Communication, Sociology, Social theory, Literary theory Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Though there is a mainstream of evolved analytic ideas, there are groups who more specifically follow the precepts of one or more of the later theoreticians. Mainstream is generally the common current of Thought of the Majority. An idea is a form (such as a Thought) formed by Consciousness (including Mind) through the Process of ideation. A Precept (from the Latin præcipere, to teach is a commandment instruction or order intended as an authoritative rule of action It also plays a role in literary analysis. See Archetypal literary criticism. Archetypal literary criticism is a type of critical theory that interprets a text by focusing on recurring myths and Archetypes (from the Greek archē,

Psychopathology (mental disturbances)

The various psychoses involve deficits in the autonomous ego functions (see above) of integration (organization) of thought, in abstraction ability, in relationship to reality and in reality testing. In depressions with psychotic features, the self-preservation function may also be damaged (sometimes by overwhelming depressive affect). Because of the integrative deficits (often causing what general psychiatrists call "loose associations," "blocking," "flight of ideas," "verbigeration," and "thought withdrawal"), the development of self and object representations is also impaired. Clinically, therefore, psychotic individuals manifest limitations in warmth, empathy, trust, identity, closeness and/or stability in relationships (due to problems with self-object fusion anxiety) as well.

In patients whose autonomous ego functions are more intact, but who still show problems with object relations, the diagnosis often falls into the category known as "borderline. " Borderline patients also show deficits, often in controlling impulses, affects, or fantasies -- but their ability to test reality remains more or less intact.

Those adults who do not experience guilt and shame, and who indulge in criminal behavior, are usually diagnosed as psychopaths, or, using DSM-IV-TR, antisocial personality disorder. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association

Panic, phobias, conversions, obsessions, compulsions and depressions (analysts call these "neurotic symptoms") are not usually caused by deficits in functions. Instead, they are caused by intrapsychic conflicts. The conflicts are generally among sexual and hostile-aggressive wishes, guilt and shame, and reality factors. The conflicts may be conscious or unconscious, but create anxiety, depressive affect, and anger. Finally, the various elements are managed by defensive operations -- essentially shut-off brain mechanisms that make people unaware of that element of conflict. "Repression" is the term given to the mechanism that shuts thoughts out of consciousness. "Isolation of affect" is the term used for the mechanism that shuts sensations out of consciousness. Neurotic symptoms may occur with or without deficits in ego functions, object relations, and ego strengths. Therefore, it is not uncommon to encounter obsessive-compulsive schizophrenics, panic patients who also suffer with borderline personality disorder, etc.

Furthermore, we know that many adult problems can trace their origins to unresolved conflicts from certain phases of childhood and adolescence. Freud, based on the data gathered from his patients early in his career, suspected that neurotic disturbances occurred when children were sexually abused in childhood (the so-called seduction theory). Later, Freud came to realize that, although child abuse occurs, that not all neurotic symptoms were associated with this. He realized that neurotic people often had unconscious conflicts that involved incestuous fantasies deriving from different stages of development. He found the stage from about three to six years of age (preschool years, today called the "first genital stage") to be filled with fantasies about marriage with both parents. Although arguments were generated in early 20th-century Vienna about whether adult seduction of children was the basis of neurotic illness, there is virtually no argument about this problem in the 21st century.

Many psychoanalysts who work with children have studied the actual effects of child abuse, which include ego and object relations deficits and severe neurotic conflicts. Much research has been done on these types of trauma in childhood, and the adult sequelae of those. On the other hand, many adults with symptom neuroses and character pathology have no history of childhood sexual or physical abuse.

In studying the childhood factors that start neurotic symptom development, Freud found a constellation of factors that, for literary reasons, he termed the Oedipus complex (based on the play by Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, where the protagonist unwittingly kills his father Laius and marries his mother Jocasta). The Oedipus complex, in Freudian Psychoanalysis, is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father Sophocles (ˈsɒfəkliːz Ancient Greek, sopʰoklɛ̂ːs circa Oedipus the King ( Ancient Greek: tyrannos Modern Greek: ( "Oedipus the Tyrant" also known as Oedipus Rex, is a In Greek mythology, King Laius, or Laios of Thebes was a divine hero and key personage in the Theban founding myth In Greek mythology, Jocasta, also known as Jocaste (Iοκαστη or Epikastê was a daughter of Menoeceus and Queen consort of Thebes The shorthand term, "oedipal," (later explicated by Joseph Sandler in "On the Concept Superego" (1960) and modified by Charles Brenner in "The Mind in Conflict" (1982)) refers to the powerful attachments that children make to their parents in the preschool years. Joseph Sandler is a Washington DC attorney who served as in-house general counsel for the Democratic National Committee (DNC from 1993 to 1998 and continues These attachments involve fantasies of marriage to either (or both) parent, and, therefore, competitive fantasies toward either (or both) parents. Humberto Nagera (1975) has been particularly helpful in clarifying many of the complexities of the child through these years.

The terms "positive" and "negative" oedipal conflicts have been attached to the heterosexual and homosexual aspects, respectively. Both seem to occur in development of most children. Eventually, the developing child's concessions to reality (that they will neither marry one parent nor eliminate the other) lead to identifications with parental values. These identifications generally create a new set of mental operations regarding values and guilt, subsumed under the term "superego. " Besides superego development, children "resolve" their preschool oedipal conflicts through channeling wishes into something their parents approve of ("sublimations") and the development, during the school-age years ("latency") of age-appropriate obsessive-compulsive defensive maneuvers (rules, repetitive games). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts

Indications and contraindications for analytic treatment

Using the various analytic theories to assess mental problems, several particular constellations of problems are particularly suited for analytic techniques (see below) whereas other problems respond better to medicines and different interpersonal interventions.

To be treated with psychoanalysis, whatever the presenting problem, the person requesting help must demonstrate

1. good capacity to organize thought (integrative function)
2. good abstraction ability
3. reasonable ability to observe self and others
4. some capacity for trust and empathy
5. some ability to control emotion and urges, and
6. good contact with reality (excludes most psychotic patients)
7. some guilt and shame (excludes most criminals and sex offenders)
8. reasonable self-preservation ability (excludes severely suicidal patients)

If any of the above are faulty, then modifications of techniques, or completely different treatment approaches, must be instituted. The more there are deficits of serious magnitude in any of the above mental operations (1-8), the more psychoanalysis as treatment is contraindicated, and the more medication and supportive approaches are indicated. In non-psychotic first-degree criminals, any treatment is often contraindicated.

The problems treatable with analysis include: phobias, conversions, compulsions, obsessions, anxiety attacks, depressions, sexual dysfunctions, a wide variety of relationship problems (such as dating and marital strife), and a wide variety of character problems (for example, painful shyness, meanness, obnoxiousness, workaholism, hyperseductiveness, hyperemotionality, hyperfastidiousness). The fact that many of such patients also demonstrate deficits in numbers 1-8 above makes diagnosis and treatment selection difficult.

Technique

The basic method of psychoanalysis is interpretation of the analysand's unconscious conflicts that are interfering with current-day functioning -- conflicts that are causing painful symptoms such as phobias, anxiety, depression, and compulsions. Strachey (1936) stressed that figuring out ways the patient distorted perceptions about the analyst led to understanding what may have been forgotten (also see Freud's paper "Repeating, Remembering, and Working Through"). James Beaumont Strachey (1887 – 1967 was a British psychoanalyst and with his wife Alix, a translator of Sigmund Freud into English In particular, unconscious hostile feelings toward the analyst could be found in symbolic, negative reactions to what Robert Langs later called the "frame" of the therapy -- the setup that included times of the sessions, payment of fees, and necessity of talking. In patients who made mistakes, forgot, or showed other peculiarities regarding time, fees, and talking, the analyst can usually find various unconscious "resistances" to the flow of thoughts (sometimes called free association).

When the patient reclines on a couch with the analyst out of view, the patient tends to remember more, experience more resistance and transference, and be able to reorganize thoughts after the development of insight -- through the interpretive work of the analyst. Although fantasy life can be understood through the examination of dreams, masturbation fantasies (cf. Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. Marcus, I. and Francis, J. (1975), Masturbation from Infancy to Senescence) are also important. The analyst is interested in how the patient reacts to and avoids such fantasies (cf. Paul Gray (1994), The Ego and the Analysis of Defense). ^[25] Various memories of early life are generally distorted -- Freud called them "screen memories" -- and in any case, very early experiences (before age two) -- can not be remembered (See the child studies of Eleanor Galenson on "evocative memory").

Variations in technique

There is what is known among psychoanalysts as "classical technique," although Freud throughout his writings deviated from this considerably, depending on the problems of any given patient. Classical technique was best summarized by Allan Compton, MD, as comprising:

1. instructions (telling the patient to try to say what's on their mind, including interferences)
2. exploration (asking questions)
3. clarification (rephrasing and summarizing what the patient has been describing)
4. confrontation (bringing an aspect of functioning, usually a defense, to the patient's attention)
5. dynamic interpretation (explaining how being too nice guards against guilt, e. g. - defense vs. affect)
6. genetic interpretation (explaining how a past event is influencing the present)
7. resistance interpretation (showing the patient how they are avoiding their problems)
8. transference interpretation (showing the patient ways old conflicts arise in current relationships, including that with the analyst)
9. dream interpretation (obtaining the patient's thoughts about their dreams and connecting this with their current problems)
10. reconstruction (estimating what may have happened in the past that created some current day difficulty)

Clearly, these techniques are primarily based on conflict theory (see above). As object relations theory evolved, supplemented by the work of Bowlby, Ainsorth, and Beebe, techniques with patients who had more severe problems with basic trust (Erikson, 1950) and a history of maternal deprivation (see the works of Augusta Alpert) led to new techniques with adults. John Bowlby ( February 26, 1907 – September 2, 1990) was a British psychiatrist and psychoanalyst notable for his interest in child John Beebe, MD (born June 24 1939 in Washington DC is a Jungian analyst in practice in San Francisco Erik Homburger Erikson ( June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994) was born in Frankfurt to Danish parents but later obtained These have sometimes been called interpersonal, intersubjective (cf. Stolorow), relational, or corrective object relations techniques. These techniques include:

1. expressing an experienced empathic attunement to the patient
2. expressing a certain dosage of warmth
3. exposing a bit of the analyst's personal life or attitudes to the patient
4. allowing the patient autonomy in the form of disagreement with the analyst (cf. I. H. Paul, Letters to Simon. )
5. explanations of the motivations of others which the patient misperceives

Finally, ego psychological concepts of deficit in functioning led to refinements in supportive therapy. These techniques are particularly applicable to psychotic and near-psychotic (cf. , Eric Marcus, "Psychosis and Near-psychosis") patients. These supportive therapy techniques include:

1. discussions of reality
2. encouragement to stay alive (including hospitalization)
3. psychotropic medicines to relieve overwhelming depressive affect
4. psychotropic medicines to relieve overwhelming fantasies (hallucinations and delusions)
5. advice about the meanings of things (to counter abstraction failures)

The notion of the "silent analyst" has been made into negative propaganda against analysis. Actually, the analyst listens in a special way (see Arlow's paper on "The Genesis of Interpretation"). Much active intervention is necessary by the analyst to interpret resistances, defenses creating pathology, and fantasies that are being displaced into the current day inappropriately. Silence and non-responsiveness was actually a technique promulgated by Carl Rogers, in his development of so-called "Client Centered Therapy" -- and is not a technique of psychoanalysis (also see the studies and opinion papers of Owen Renik, MD). Carl Ransom Rogers ( January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American Psychologist and among the founders of the

"Analytic Neutrality" is a concept that does not mean the analyst is silent. It refers to the analyst's position of not taking sides in the internal struggles of the patient. For example, if a patient feels guilty, the analyst might explore what the patient has been doing or thinking that causes the guilt, but not reassure the patient not to feel guilty. The analyst might also explore the identifications with parents and others that led to the guilt.

Although single-client sessions remain the norm, psychoanalytic theory has been used to develop other types of psychological treatment. Psychoanalytic group therapy was pioneered by Trigant Burrow, Joseph Pratt, Paul F. Trigant Burrow, (September 7 1875 - May 24 1950 was a American Psychoanalyst, Psychiatrist, Psychologist, and alongside Joseph H Schilder, Samuel R. Slavson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Wolfe. Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan ( February 21, 1892, Norwich New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France Child-centered counseling for parents was instituted early in analytic history by Freud, and was later further developed by Irwin Marcus, Edith Schulhofer, and Gilbert Kliman. Psychoanalytically based couples therapy has been promulgated and explicated by Fred Sander, MD.

The widening scope

The term widening scope implies that new techniques and tools are now available that can reach patients who were not treatable by earlier techniques and tools. The widened scope suddenly made potentially available a large pool of patients who would not otherwise have been available. This meant that the analytic situation was modified so that it would be more suitable and more likely to be helpful for these patients. M. N. Eagle (2007) believes that psychoanalysis cannot be a self-contained discipline but instead must be open to influence from and integration with findings and theory from other disciplines ^[26].

Cost and length of treatment

The cost to the patient of psychoanalytic treatment ranges widely from place to place and between practitioners. Low-fee analysis is often available in a psychoanalytic training clinic and graduate schools. Otherwise, the fee set by each analyst varies with the analyst's training and experience. Since, in most locations in the United States, unlike in Ontario and Germany, classical analysis (which usually requires sessions three to five times per week) is not covered by health insurance, many analysts may negotiate their fees with patients whom they feel they can help, but who have financial difficulties.

The various modifications of analysis, which include dynamic therapy, brief therapies, and certain types of group therapy (cf. Slavson, S. R. , A Textbook in Analytic Group Therapy), are carried out on a less frequent basis - usually once, twice, or three times a week - and usually the patient sits facing the therapist.

Many studies have also been done on briefer "dynamic" treatments; these are more expedient to measure, and shed light on the therapeutic process to some extent. Brief Relational Therapy (BRT), Brief Psychodynamic Therapy (BPT), and Time-Limited Dynamic Therapy (TLDP) limit treatment to 20-30 sessions. On average, classical analysis may last 5. 7 years, [3] but for phobias and depressions uncomplicated by ego deficits or object relations deficits, analysis may run for a shorter period of time. Longer analyses are indicated for those with more serious disturbances in object relations, more symptoms, and more ingrained character pathology (such as obnoxiousness, severe passivity, or heinous procrastination).

Contributing factors for the indication and contraindication of psychoanalytic treatment

Looking at the influences from and integration with other disciplines a list of contributing factors conceivable for the indication and contraindication of psychoanalytic treatment can be described.

Official analytical organizations like the International Psychoanalytical Association ^[27], the American Psychoanalytical Association ^[28], the European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy ^[29], etc. The International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA is an association including 11800 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations American Psychoanalytic Association is an association of psychoanalysts in the United States. have established procedures and models for the indication and practice of psychoanalytical therapy for trainees in analysis.

The match between the analyst and the patient can be viewed as another contributing factor for the indication and contraindication for psychoanalytic treatment. The analyst decides whether the patient is suitable for psychoanalysis. This decision made by the analyst, besides made on the usual indications and pathology, is also based to a certain degree by the "fit" between analyst and patient.

Curiosities, archaic ideas, and controversy

Freud revisited the Oedipal territory in the final essay of Totem and Taboo. Totem and Taboo Resemblances Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics was a book written by Sigmund Freud published in German as Totem und There, he combined one of Charles Darwin's more speculative theories about the arrangements of early human societies (a single alpha-male surrounded by a harem of females, similar to the arrangement of gorilla groupings) with the theory of the sacrifice ritual taken from William Robertson Smith. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Gorillas, the largest of the living Primates are ground-dwelling Herbivores that inhabit the Forests of Africa. William Robertson Smith ( 8 November, 1846 – 31 March, 1894) was a Scottish orientalist, Old Testament scholar Smith believed he had located the origins of totemism in a singular event, whereby a band of prehistoric brothers expelled from the alpha-male group returned to kill their father, whom they both feared and respected. A totem is any supposed entity that watches over or assists a group of people such as a family Clan or tribe ( Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary and Webster's In this respect, Freud located the beginnings of the Oedipus complex at the origins of human society, and postulated that all religion was in effect an extended and collective solution to the problem of guilt and ambivalence relating to the killing of the father figure (which Freud saw as the true original sin). The Oedipus complex, in Freudian Psychoanalysis, is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father ---- Guilt is the Fact, state or Verdict (by a Court or other Tribunal) of an Offence, Crime, Violation Original sin is according to a doctrine in Catholic theology, humanity's state of Sin resulting from the Fall of Man.

In 1920, after the carnage of World War I, and after studying severe depressions and masochistic states, Freud became concerned with what today Parens has called "destructive aggression. " He began to formulate that there were wishes that drove human beings that were not sexual, but aggressive. The concepts of a libidinal and an aggressive drive are still used clinically by a large number of practicing analysts, but there is today some dispute (and research into) the origins of either sexual or destructive fantasies and/or behavior. Freud attempted, in "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" (1920), to theorize that there might be cellular origins to destructiveness, an idea that may be supported by current research into telomeres and cell death. A telomere is a region of repetitive DNA at the end of Chromosomes which protects the end of the chromosome from destruction Programmed cell-death ( PCD) is death of a cell in any form mediated by an intracellular program Most North American analysts, however, have not been persuaded by Freud's arguments that there is a "Death Drive" underlying aggression. However, analysts in England (the Melanie Klein group) and South America utilize this concept.

Procedures and models for the indication of psychoanalytical therapy

When analysts utilize concrete, semi-standardized procedures to evaluate patients' suitability for analytic treatment, their associations' "defined protocols," may include (semi-) structured interviews, personality tests, projective tests, and/or psychological questionnaires. A structured Interview (also known as a standardised interview or a researcher-administered survey) is a Quantitative research method commonly A personality test aims to describe aspects of a person's character that remain stable throughout that person's lifetime the individual's character pattern of behavior thoughts and feelings A projective test, in Psychology, is a Personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli presumably revealing hidden Emotions and internal A questionnaire is a Research instrument consisting of a series of Questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents An evaluation may include one or more other analysts' independent opinions and will include discussion of the patient's financial situation and insurances.

Training

Psychoanalytic training in the United States, in most locations, involves three facets:

1. Personal analytic treatment for the trainee, conducted confidentially, with no report to the Education Committee of the Analytic Training Institute.
2. Approximately 600 hours of class instruction, with a standard curriculum, over a four-year period. Classes are often a few hours per week, or for a full day or two every other weekend during the academic year; this varies with the institute.
3. Supervision once per week, with a senior analyst, on each analytic treatment case the trainee has. The minimum number of cases varies between institutes, often two to four cases. Male and female cases are required. Supervision must go on for at least a few years on one or more cases. Supervision is done in the supervisor's office, where the trainee presents material from the analytic work that week, examines the unconscious conflicts with the supervisor, and learns, discusses, and is advised about technique.

Psychoanalytic Training Centers in the United States have been accredited by special committees of the American Psychoanalytic Association[4] or the International Psychoanalytical Association. American Psychoanalytic Association is an association of psychoanalysts in the United States. Because of theoretical differences, other institutes have arisen, as well, which belong to other organizations such as the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychotherapy, and the National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. At most psychoanalytic institutes in the United States, qualifications for entry include a terminal degree in a mental health field, such as Ph. D. , C. S. W. , or M. D. A few institutes restrict applicants to those already holding an M. D. or Ph. D. , and one institute in Southern California confers a Ph. D. or Psy.D. in psychoanalysis upon graduation, which involves completion of the necessary requirements for the state boards that confer that doctoral degree. The Doctor of Psychology (PsyD degree is a Professional doctorate, which is earned through one of two established training models for Clinical Psychology.

Some psychoanalytic training has been set up as a post-doctoral fellowship in university settings, such as at Duke University, Yale University, New York University, and Columbia University. Other psychoanalytic institutes may not be directly associated with universities, but the faculty at those institutes usually hold contemporaneous faculty positions with psychology Ph. D. programs and/or with Medical School psychiatry residency programs.

Psychoanalysis was limited to those "in the know" from the early 1920s (when A.A. Brill began the New York Psychoanalytic Institute) through the end of World War II, although the idea that repression of sexual urges could make you mentally ill (Freud's first, discarded theory) proved popular with college students in the 1920s -- who used the theory to argue with their conservative parents. Abraham Arden Brill (1874–1948 was an American Psychiatrist. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded During those early years, Andrew Carnegie was perhaps one of the most famous patients who benefited; he later made his gratitude public by endowing a psychoanalytic fund in Pittsburgh. Andrew Carnegie (properly kɑrˈneɪgi but commonly /ˈkɑrnɨgi/ or /kɑrˈnɛgi/ (25 November 1835 – 11 August 1919 was a Scottish -born American Industrialist

Psychoanalysis became popular post-war, as many celebrities found it useful -- such as Steve Allen, Jayne Meadows, and Art Buchwald. Steve Allen, born Stephen Valentine Patrick William Allen ( December 26 1921 – October 30 2000) was an American Jayne Meadows (born September 27, 1920) is an American movie and stage Actress and Author. Arthur Buchwald (October 20 1925 &ndash January 17 2007 was an American humorist best known for his long-running column that he wrote in The Psychoanalytic treatment became somewhat less popular during the 1980s and early 1990s. Circa 1986, when insurance companies decimated health insurance coverage for all mental illnesses people for whom psychoanalytic treatment was indicated were increasingly unable to afford it. Gradually, as psychiatry departments became more dependent on grants from pharmaceutical companies, chairs of Psychiatry Departments in the nation's medical schools tended to come from backgrounds involving pharmacological research -- not from backgrounds involving analytic training. Interestingly, psychoanalytic institutes have experienced an increase in the number of applicants in recent years, but, not surprisingly, about 70-80% of incoming students are non-MDs. ^[30]

Psychoanalytical Organizations

To give some insight on how much psychoanalysis is practiced nowadays, a short overview of the world's psychoanalytic organisations is given and some numbers are provided. An organization (or organisation &mdash see spelling differences) is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals which controls its own performance and

International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA)
The IPA is the world’s primary accrediting and regulatory body for psychoanalysis. The International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA is an association including 11800 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations Their mission is to assure the continued vigour and development of psychoanalysis for the benefit of psychoanalytic patients. It works in partnership with it’s 70 constituent organizations in 33 countries to support 11,500 members. ⁷

Psychoanalytical associations in the USA
There are 77 psychoanalytical organizations, institutes associations in the United States, which are spread across the states of America. The American Psychoanalytical Association (APSaA) has 38 affiliated societies, which are comprised of ten or more active members who practice in a given geographical area. American Psychoanalytic Association is an association of psychoanalysts in the United States. ⁸

The aims of the APSaA and other psychoanalytical organizations are: provide ongoing educational opportunities for it’s members, stimulate the development and research of psychoanalysis, provide trainings to professionals and organize conferences and events. ⁹ There are eight affiliated study groups in the USA (two of them are in Latin America). ¹⁰ A study group is the first level of integration of a psychoanalytical body within the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA), followed by a provisional society and finally a member society. The International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA is an association including 11800 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations ¹¹

Psychoanalytical organizations in Europe
The European Psychoanalytical Federation (EPF) is the scientific organization that consolidates all European psychoanalytic societies. This organization is affiliated with the IPA. In 2002 there were approximately 3900 individual members in twenty-two countries, speaking eighteen different languages. ¹² There are also twenty-five psychoanalytic societies.

Other Psychoanalytic Schools

• Kleinian
• Winnicottian
• Lacanian

Efficacy and empirical research

Over a hundred years of case reports and studies in the journal Modern Psychoanalysis, the Psychoanalytic Quarterly, the International Journal of Psychoanalysis and the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association demonstrate the efficacy of analysis in cases of neurosis and character or personality problems. Melanie Klein ( March 30 1882 – September 22 1960) was an Austrian born Donald Woods Winnicott ( 7 April, 1896 - January 28, 1971) was a pediatrician and psychoanalyst Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (JAPA is one of the most highly regarded psychoanalytic journals in the world This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Psychoanalysis modified by object relations techniques has been shown to be effective in many cases of ingrained problems of intimacy and relationship (cf. the many books of Otto Kernberg). As a therapeutic treatment, psychoanalytic techniques may be useful in a one-session consultation (see Blackman, J. (1994), Psychodynamic Technique during Ungent Consultation Interviews, Journal Psychotherapy Practice & Research). Psychoanalytic treatment, in other situations, may run from about a year to many years, depending on the severity and complexity of the pathology.

Psychoanalytic theory has, from its inception, been the subject of criticism and controversy. Freud remarked on this early in his career, when other physicians in Vienna ostracized him for his findings that hysterical conversion symptoms were not limited to women. Challenges to analytic theory began with Otto Rank and Adler (turn of the 20th century), continued with behaviorists (e. Otto Rank ( April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939) was an Austrian Psychoanalyst, writer teacher and therapist Alfred Adler ( February 7 1870 &ndash May 28 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of g. Wolpe) into the 1940s and '50s, and have persisted. Joseph Wolpe (1915 &ndash 1997 was born in Johannesburg South Africa in 1915 but became an American citizen later in his life Criticisms come from those who object the notion that there are mechanisms, thoughts or feelings in the mind that could be unconscious. Criticisms also have been leveled against the discovery of "infantile sexuality" (the recognition that children between ages two and six imagine things about procreation). Criticisms of theory have led to variations in analytic theories, such as the work of Fairbairn, Balint, and Bowlby. William Ronald Dodds Fairbairn ( 11 August 1889 - 31 December 1964) was a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. Michael Balint - Bálint Mihály ( December 3 1896, Budapest - December 31 1970, Bristol) was a psychoanalyst In the past 30 years or so, the criticisms have centered on the issue of empirical verification,^[31] in spite of many empirical, prospective research studies that have been empirically validated (e. g. , See the studies of Barbara Milrod, at Cornell University Medical School, et al. ).

Psychoanalysis has been thriving as a research tool into childhood development (cf. the journal The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances (see Wallerstein's (2000) Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy). In the 1960s, Freud's early (1905) thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to major research in the 1970s and 80s, and then to a reformulation of female sexual development that corrected some of Freud's concepts. This article is about the issues and phenomena pertaining to sexual function and behavior of Human Females Human female sexuality encompasses ^[32]

A 2005 review of randomized controlled trials found that "psychoanalytic therapy is (1) more effective than no treatment or treatment as usual, and (2) more effective than shorter forms of psychodynamic therapy"^[33]. A randomized controlled trial (RCT is a type of scientific Experiment most commonly used in testing the Efficacy or Effectiveness of Healthcare Empirical research on the efficacy of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy has also become prominent among psychoanalytic researchers. Empirical research is any research that bases its findings on direct or indirect Observation as its test of Reality.

Research on psychodynamic treatment of some populations shows mixed results. Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and Research by analysts such as Bertram Karon and colleagues at Michigan State University had suggested that when trained properly, psychodynamic therapists can be effective with schizophrenic patients. Michigan State University ( MSU) is a co-educational public Research university in East Lansing, Michigan USA. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn More recent research casts doubt on these claims. The Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT) report argues in its Recommendation 22 against the use of psychodynamic therapy in cases of schizophrenia, noting that more trials are necessary to verify its effectiveness. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a form of Depth psychology, the primary focus of which is to reveal the unconscious content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate However, the PORT recommendation is based on the opinions of clinicians rather than on empirical data, and empirical data exist that contradict this recommendation (link to abstract). A review of current medical literature in The Cochrane Library, (the updated abstract of which is available online) reached the conclusion that no data exist that demonstrate that psychodynamic psychotherapy is effective in treating schizophrenia. The Cochrane Library is a collection of databases in medicine and other healthcare specialties provided by the Cochrane Collaboration and other organisations Dr. Hyman Spotnitz and the practitioners of his theory known as Modern Psychoanalysis, a specific sub-specialty, still report (2007) much success in using their enhanced version of psychoanalytic technique in the treatment of schizophrenia. Further data also suggest that psychoanalysis is not effective (and possibly even detrimental) in the treatment of sex offenders.

Psychoanalysis today

Psychoanalysis is probably the psychological theory best known by the public, and Freud is probably the best known analyst even today. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded ¹ Current psychoanalysis is not the same as it was in the time of Freud. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Experiences of psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psychotherapists and research into infant and child development have led to new insights. Theories have been further developed and the results of empirical research are now more integrated in the psychoanalytic theory. Empirical research is any research that bases its findings on direct or indirect Observation as its test of Reality. Psychoanalytic theory is a general term for approaches to Psychoanalysis which attempt to provide a conceptual framework more-or-less independent of clinical practice rather ³ Nowadays, there are different forms of psychoanalysis and psychotherapies in which psychoanalytic thinking is practiced. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Besides classical psychoanalysis there is for example psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Other examples of well known therapies which also use insights of psychoanalysis are Mentalization-Based Treatment (MBT), and Transference-Focused Psychotherapy (TFP). ⁴ There is also a continuing influence of psychoanalytic thinking in different settings in the mental health care. ⁵ To give an example: in the psychotherapeutic training in the Netherlands, psychoanalytic and system therapeutic theories, drafts, and techniques are combined and integrated. ⁶

References

¹ http://www.personalityresearch.org/psychoanalysis.html
² Mitchell, S. A. , & Black, M. J. (1995). Freud and beyond: a history of modern psychoanalytic thought. Basic Books, New York. xviii-xx.
³ www. psychoanalytischinstituut. nl
⁴ www. psychoanalytischinstituut. nl
⁵ www. npg-utrecht. nl/npg. htm
⁶ http://www.rino.nl/postdoc/studenten/psychotherapeut/
⁷ International Psychoanalytical Association
⁸ American Psychoanalytical Association
₉ American Psychoanalytical Association
¹⁰ American Psychoanalytical Association
¹¹ www. answers. com
¹² www. answers. com

Cultural adaptations

Psychoanalysis can be adapted to different cultures, as long as the therapist or counseling understands the client’s culture. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic For example, Tori and Blimes found that defense mechanisms were valid in a normative sample of 2,624 Thais. The Thai (or Tai) are the main ethnic group of Thailand and are part of the larger Tai ethnolinguistic peoples found in Thailand and adjacent countries The use of certain defense mechanisms was related to cultural values. For example Thais value calmness and collectiveness (because of Buddhist beliefs), so they were low on regressive emotionality. Psychoanalysis also applies because Freud used techniques that allowed him to get the subjective perceptions of his patients. He takes an objective approach by not facing his clients during his talk therapy sessions. He met with his patients where ever they were, such as when he used free association—where clients would say whatever came to mind without self-censorship. His treatments had little to no structure for most cultures, especially Asian cultures. Therefore, it is more likely that Freudian constructs will be used in structured therapy (Thompson, et al. , 2004). In addition, Corey postulates that it will be necessary for a therapist to help clients develop a cultural identity as well as an ego identity. Cultural identity is the (feeling of identity of a group or Culture, or of an Individual as far as he or she is influenced by her belonging to a group Since Freud has been criticized for not accounting for external/societal forces, it seems logical that therapists or counselors using his premises will work with the family more. Mental health counselors (in this article MHCs) practice Mental health counseling which is a dynamic Psychoeducational discipline born in the late 1970’s

Many North American therapists practicing psychoanalysis therapy fail to take culture into consideration. As a result, the case of Frances Pulmarie ended with terrible consequences after the 32-year-old committed suicide. Anderson Spiellmen, the working therapist, was fined heavily and his working license was revoked.

Play therapy, art therapy, and other therapies

Psychoanalytic constructs have been adapted and modified for use with children. Play therapy, art therapy, and storytelling, have been the beneficiaries of these modifications. Play therapy is generally employed with children ages 3 to 11 play provides a way for Children to express their experiences and feelings through a natural self-guided Art therapy is a form of Expressive therapy that uses art materials such as paints chalk and markers Storytelling is the ancient art of conveying events in Words Images and Sounds often by Improvisation or embellishment Throughout her career, from the 1920s through the 1970s, Anna Freud (Sigmund Freud's daughter) adapted psychoanalysis for children through play. Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud This is still used today for children, especially those who are preadolescent (see Leon Hoffman, New York Psychoanalytic Institute Center for Children). Using toys and games, children are able to demonstrate, symbolically, their fears, fantasies, and defenses; although not identical, this technique, in children, is analogous to the aim of free association in adults. This article is about playthings For other uses of the term see Toy (disambiguation. A game is a structured activity, usually undertaken for Enjoyment and sometimes also used as an Educational tool Psychoanalytic play therapy allows the child and analyst to understand children's conflicts, particularly defenses such as disobedience and withdrawal, that have been guarding against various unpleasant feelings and hostile wishes.

Psychoanalytic constructs fit with constructs of other more structured therapies, and Firestone (2002) thinks psychotherapy should have more depth and involve both psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral approaches. For example, Corey states that Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT), would allow his clients to experience depression over a loss, since such an emotion would be rational—often people will be irrational and deny their feelings. Albert Ellis ( September 27 1913 &ndash July 24 2007) was an American Psychologist who in 1955 developed Rational Emotive

In art therapy, the counselor may have a child draw a portrait and then tell a story about the portrait. The counselor watches for recurring themes — regardless of whether it is with art or toys.

Criticisms

Psychoanalysis has been criticized on a variety of grounds by

Mario Bunge Frank Cioffi Frederick Crews Hans Eysenck Ernest Gellner Adolf Grünbaum Allan Hobson

Han Israels Alejandro Jodorowsky Karl Kraus Jeffrey Masson Malcolm Bruce Macmillan José Guilherme Merquior Peter Medawar

Karl Popper William Sargant Arthur K. Shapiro Richard Webster Ludwig Wittgenstein Noam Chomsky

and others. Mario Augusto Bunge (born September 21, 1919, Buenos Aires) is an Argentine philosopher and physicist mainly active in Hans Jürgen Eysenck ( March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany - September 4, 1997 in London, UK) was a Ernest André Gellner ( 9 December 1925 &ndash 5 November 1995) was a Philosopher and social anthropologist, cited as one Adolf Grünbaum (born 1923 in Cologne, Germany) is a philosopher of science and a critic of Psychoanalysis and Karl Popper. John Allan Hobson, MD (born June 3, 1933) is an American Psychiatrist and Dream researcher Alejandro Jodorowsky (ɑːlɛˈxɑːndrɒ jɒdɒˈrɒvskiː (born February 7 1929 in Tocopilla, Chile, of a Jewish Russian (Ukranian immigrant family For the theologian see Karl Christian Friedrich Krause. Karl Kraus ( April 28, 1874 - June 12, 1936) Dr Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson (born March 28, 1941 as Jeffrey Lloyd Masson in Chicago, Illinois) is an American residing José Guilherme Merquior ( Rio de Janeiro, April 22 1941 &mdash Rio de Janeiro January 7, 1991) was a Brazilian diplomat Sir Peter Brian Medawar, OM, FRS, ( February 28, 1915 &ndash October 2, 1987) was a Brazilian born Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor William Walters Sargant ( April 24, 1907 - August 27, 1988) was a British Psychiatrist who is now famous for his work Arthur K Shapiro (1923–1995 was a Psychiatrist and expert on Tourette syndrome. Richard Webster (born 1950 is a Freud scholar and cultural historian. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Exchanges between critics and defenders of psychoanalysis have often been so heated that they have come to be characterized as the Freud Wars.

Popper argues that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted, that is, they are not falsifiable. Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the ^[34] For example, if a client's reaction was not consistent with the psychosexual theory then an alternate explanation would be given (e. g. defense mechanisms, reaction formation). In Sigmund Freud 's Psychoanalytic theory, reaction formation is a Defense mechanism in which Anxiety -producing or unacceptable Emotions

Kraus was the subject of two books written by noted libertarian author Thomas Szasz. Thomas Stephen Szasz (pronounced /sas/ born April 15, 1920 in Budapest, Hungary) is a Psychiatrist and Academic. Karl Kraus and the Soul Doctors and Anti-Freud: Karl Kraus's Criticism of Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry portrayed Kraus as a harsh critic of Sigmund Freud and of psychoanalysis in general. Other commentators, such as Edward Timms (Karl Kraus - Apocalyptic Satirist) have argued that Kraus respected Freud, though with reservations about the application of some of his theories, and that his views were far less black-and-white than Szasz suggests.

Grünbaum argues that psychoanalytic based theories are falsifiable, but that the causal claims of psychoanalysis are unsupported by the available clinical evidence. Other schools of psychology have produced alternative methods for psychotherapy, including behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, Gestalt therapy and person-centered psychotherapy. Behaviour therapy is a form of Psychotherapy used to treat depression, Anxiety disorders, Phobias, and other forms of Psychopathology Cognitive Therapy (CT is a type of Psychotherapy developed by American Psychiatrist Aaron T Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental Person-Centered Therapy (PCT also known as Client-centered therapy or Rogerian Psychotherapy, was developed by the humanist Psychologist Carl Rogers

Hans Eysenck determined that improvement was no greater than spontaneous remission. Hans Jürgen Eysenck ( March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany - September 4, 1997 in London, UK) was a In Medicine, spontaneous remission is recovery without known reason or cause Between two-thirds and three-fourths of “neurotics” would recover naturally; this was no different from therapy clients. Prioleau, Murdock, Brody reviewed several therapy-outcome studies and determined that psychotherapy is no different than placebo controls.

Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze claimed that the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of power, with its confessional techniques resembling the Christian tradition. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. Gilles Deleuze ( (January 18 1925 &ndash November 4 1995 was a French philosopher of the late 20th century A confessional is a small enclosed booth used for the Sacrament of Penance, often called Confession, or Reconciliation Christian tradition is a collection of Traditions of practice or belief associated with Christianity. ^[35] Strong criticism of certain forms of psychoanalysis is offered by psychoanalytical theorists. Jacques Lacan criticized the emphasis of some American and British psychoanalytical traditions on what he has viewed as the suggestion of imaginary "causes" for symptoms, and recommended the return to Freud. Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst ^[36]

Bracha Ettinger criticised "empathy without compassion", the imaginary "ready-made mother-monster" offered by some analytical traditions as "cause" for psychic suffering, and the blindness to methods that cause splits and block the psychic path to "primary compassion". Bracha L Ettinger (born 1951 also known as Bracha Ettinger, Bracha Lichtenberg Ettinger, Hebrew ברכה אטינגר, ברכה ליכטנברג-אטינגר She also has noted the damage to the feminine brought by the ignorance of the unconscious transformational sphere created by prebirth-prematernal transconnectivity. ^[37]

Together with Gilles Deleuze, Felix Guattari criticised the Oedipal structure. Pierre-Félix Guattari ( April 30, 1930 – August 29, 1992) was a French Militant, institutional Psychotherapist ^[38]

Luce Irigaray criticised what she called the phallogocentrism of the Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalytical theories. Luce Irigaray (born 1932 Belgium) is a French feminist, Philosopher, Linguist, psychoanalytic and cultural theorist ^[39]

Due to the wide variety of psychoanalytic theories, varying schools of psychoanalysis often internally criticize each other. One consequence is that some critics offer criticism of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis while not rejecting other premises of psychoanalysis. Defenders of psychoanalysis argue that many critics (such as feminist critics of Freud) have attempted to offer criticisms of psychoanalysis that were in fact only criticisms of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis. As the psychoanalytic researcher Drew Westen puts it, "Critics have typically focused on a version of psychoanalytic theory—circa 1920 at best—that few contemporary analysts find compelling… In so doing, however, they have set the terms of the public debate and have led many analysts, I believe mistakenly, down an indefensible path of trying to defend a 75 to 100-year-old version of a theory and therapy that has changed substantially since Freud laid its foundations at the turn of the century. Drew Westen (Andrew Westen is Professor in the Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry at Emory University in Atlanta Georgia. " link to Westen article.

A further consideration with respect to cost is that in circumstances when lower cost treatment is provided to the patient as the analyst is funded by the government , then psychoanalytic treatment occurs at the expense other forms of more effective treatment^[40]

Challenges to scientific validity

An early and important criticism of psychoanalysis was that its theories were based on little quantitative and experimental research, and instead relied almost exclusively on the clinical case study method. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or In comparison, brief psychotherapy approaches such as behavior therapy and cognitive therapy have shown much more concern for empirical validation (Morley et al. Behaviour therapy is a form of Psychotherapy used to treat depression, Anxiety disorders, Phobias, and other forms of Psychopathology Cognitive Therapy (CT is a type of Psychotherapy developed by American Psychiatrist Aaron T An empirical validation of a hypothesis is required for it togain acceptance in the scientific community 1999). Some even accused Freud of fabrication, most famously in the case, and miraculous cure of Anna O. (Borch-Jacobsen 1996). Anna O was the Pseudonym of a patient of Josef Breuer, who published her case study in his book Studies on Hysteria, written in collaboration

An increasing amount of empirical research from academic psychologists and psychiatrists has begun to address this criticism. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, A psychiatrist (also archaically called an alienist) is a Physician who specializes in Psychiatry and is certified in treating Mental disorders

A survey of scientific research showed that while personality traits corresponding to Freud's oral, anal, Oedipal, and genital phases can be observed, they cannot be observed as stages in the development of children, nor can it be confirmed that such traits in adults result from childhood experiences (Fisher & Greenberg, 1977, p. 399). However, these stages should not be viewed as crucial to modern psychoanalysis. What is crucial to modern psychoanalytic theory and practice is the power of the unconscious and the transference phenomenon.

Some claim the idea of "unconscious" is contested because human behavior can be observed while human psychology has to be guessed at. However, the unconscious is now a hot topic of study in the fields of experimental and social psychology (e. g. , implicit attitude measures, fMRI, and PET scans, and other indirect tests). Functional MRI or functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI is a type of specialized MRI scan Positron emission tomography ( PET) is a Nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the One would be hard pressed to find scientists who still think of the mind as a "black box". Presently, the field of psychology has embraced the study of things outside one's awareness. Even strict behaviorists acknowledge that a vast amount of classical conditioning is unconscious and that this has profound effects on our emotional life. Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov The idea of unconscious, and the transference phenomenon, have been widely researched and, it is claimed, validated in the fields of cognitive psychology and social psychology (Westen & Gabbard 2002), though such claims are also contested. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Recent developments in neuroscience have resulted in one side arguing that it has provided a biological basis for unconscious emotional processing in line with psychoanalytic theory i. e. , neuropsychoanalysis (Westen & Gabbard 2002), while the other side argues that such findings make psychoanalytic theory obsolete and irrelevant. Neuro-psychoanalysis is a movement within Neuroscience and Psychoanalysis to combine the insights of both disciplines for a better understanding of mind and brain

E. Fuller Torrey, considered by some to be a leading American psychiatrist, writing in Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists (1986) stated that psychoanalytic theories have no more scientific basis than the theories of traditional native healers, "witchdoctors" or modern "cult" alternatives such as est (p. Edwin Fuller Torrey, MD (b September 6, 1937, Utica, New York) is an American Psychiatrist and Schizophrenia Erhard Seminars Training, an organization founded by Werner H 76). In fact some scientists regard psychoanalysis as a pseudoscience (Cioffi, 1998). Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the

Among philosophers, Karl Popper argued that Freud's theory of the unconscious was not falsifiable and therefore not scientific. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding ^[34] Popper did not object to the idea that some mental processes could be unconscious but to investigations of the mind that were not falsifiable. In other words, if it were possible to connect every conceivable experimental outcome with Freud's theory of the unconscious mind, then no experiment could refute the theory. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or

Anthropologist Roy Wagner in his classic work The Invention of Culture ridicules psychoanalysis and tries to account for personality and emotional disorder in terms of invention and convention. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Roy Wagner is a Cultural anthropologist who specializes in Symbolic anthropology. Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Character Disorder is a class of mental disorders characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of feeling thinking and behavior ^[41]

Some proponents of psychoanalysis suggest that its concepts and theories are more akin to those found in the humanities than those proper to the physical and biological/medical sciences, though Freud himself tried to base his clinical formulations on a hypothetical neurophysiology of energy transformations. For example, the philosopher Paul Ricoeur argued that psychoanalysis can be considered a type of textual interpretation or hermeneutics. Paul Ricœur (born February 27, 1913 in Valence France; died May 20, 2005 in Chatenay Malabry, France was a Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts Like cultural critics and literary scholars, Ricoeur contended, psychoanalysts spend their time interpreting the nuances of language — the language of their patients. Ricoeur claimed that psychoanalysis emphasizes the polyvocal or many-voiced qualities of language, focusing on utterances that mean more than one thing. Ricoeur classified psychoanalysis as a hermeneutics of suspicion. Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts By this he meant that psychoanalysis searches for deception in language, and thereby destabilizes our usual reliance on clear, obvious meanings.

Theoretical criticism

Psychoanalysts have often complained about the significant lack of theoretical agreement among analysts of different schools. Many authors have attempted to integrate the various theories, with limited success. However, with the publication of the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual much of this lack of cohesion has been resolved. The Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual ( PDM) is a diagnostic handbook similar to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems

Jacques Derrida incorporated aspects of psychoanalytic theory into deconstruction in order to question what he called the 'metaphysics of presence'. The concept of the metaphysics of presence is an important consideration within the area of Deconstruction. Freud's insistence, in the first chapter of The Ego and the Id, that philosophers will recoil from his theory of the unconscious is clearly a forbear to Derrida's understanding of metaphysical 'self-presence'. "The Ego and the Id" is a prominent paper by the Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Derrida also turns some of these ideas against Freud, to reveal tensions and contradictions in his work. These tensions are the conditions upon which Freud's work can operate. For example, although Freud defines religion and metaphysics as displacements of the identification with the father in the resolution of the Oedipal complex, Derrida insists in The Postcard: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond that the prominence of the father in Freud's own analysis is itself indebted to the prominence given to the father in Western metaphysics and theology since Plato. Thus Derrida thinks that even though Freud remains within a theologico-metaphysical tradition of 'phallologocentrism', Freud nonetheless criticizes that tradition.

The purpose of Derrida's analysis is not to refute Freud, which would only reaffirm traditional metaphysics, but to reveal an undecidability at the heart of his project. This deconstruction of Freud casts doubt upon the possibility of delimiting psychoanalysis as a rigorous science. Yet it celebrates the side of Freud which emphasises the open-ended and improvisatory nature of psychoanalysis, and its methodical and ethical demand that the testimony of the analysand should be given prominence in the practice of analysis.

Psychoanalysis, or at least the dominant version of it, has been denounced as patriarchal or phallocentric by some proponents of feminist theory. Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over In Critical theory and Deconstruction, phallogocentrism or phallocentrism is a Neologism coined by Jacques Derrida to refer to Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Other feminist scholars have argued that Freud opened up society to female sexuality.

See also

• List of psychoanalytical theorists
• The Century of the Self (related documentary)
• Edward Bernays

References

Literature

Critiques of psychoanalysis

External links

• Psychoanalytic_and_Psychodynamic at the Open Directory Project

The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org