An assortment of psychoactive drugs

A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behaviour. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. A mood is a relatively long lasting affective or emotional state Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually These drugs may be used recreationally to purposefully alter one's consciousness, as entheogens for ritual or spiritual purposes, as a tool for studying or augmenting the mind, or therapeutically as medication. Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease

Because psychoactive substances bring about subjective changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find pleasant (e. g. euphoria) or advantageous (e. g. increased alertness), many psychoactive substances are abused, that is, used excessively, despite risks or negative consequences. Substance abuse is the overindulgence in and dependence of a Drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health With sustained use of some substances, physical dependence may develop, making the cycle of abuse even more difficult to interrupt. Physical dependence (or drug dependence) refers to a state resulting from habitual use of a drug where negative physical Withdrawal symptoms result from abrupt discontinuation Drug rehabilitation can involve a combination of psychotherapy, support groups and even other psychoactive substances to break the cycle of dependency. Drug rehabilitation (often drug rehab or just rehab) is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment for dependency Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living

In part because of this potential for abuse and dependency, the ethics of drug use are the subject of a continuing philosophical debate. Many governments worldwide have placed restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to decrease drug abuse.

History

Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic" There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. ^[1] While medicinal use seems to have played a very large role, it has been suggested that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire. ^[2] Others suggest that marketing, availability or the pressures of modern life are why humans use so many psychoactives in their daily lives. However, the long history of drug use and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicates that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal. ^[3]

This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Nepeta is a Genus of about 250 Species of Flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use. ^[4] Biology suggests an evolutionary connection between psychoactive plants and animals, as to why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system. ^[5]

The 20th century has seen governments initially responding to many drugs by banning them and making their use, supply or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this is the Prohibition era in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. Prohibition of alcohol, often referred to simply as prohibition, also known as Noble Experiment, refers to a Sumptuary law which prohibits Alcohol However, many governments have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have the negative effects of their illicit drug use minimized. This can go hand-in-hand with supply reduction strategies by law-enforcement agencies.

Uses of psychoactive substances

Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes, both legal and illicit.

Anesthesia

Main article: Anesthesia

General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on patients to block pain and other sensations. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις A general anaesthetic (or anesthetic, see Spelling differences) drug is an anaesthetic drug that brings about a reversible loss of Consciousness. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, which allows patients to undergo medical procedures like surgery without physical pain or emotional trauma. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental ^[6] To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDA systems. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system. NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid is an Amino acid derivative acting as a specific Agonist at the NMDA receptor, and therefore mimics the action of the For example, halothane is a GABA agonist,^[7] and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist. Halothane vapour (or Fluothane) is an inhalational General anaesthetic. Ketamine is a drug for use in human and veterinary medicine developed by Parke-Davis (today a part of Pfizer) in 1962 ^[8]

Painkillers

Main article: Analgesics

Aspirin

Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. Pain management (also called pain medicine is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of Pain. As the subjective experience of pain is regulated by endorphins, neurochemicals that are endogenous opioids, pain can be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system. Endorphins are Endogenous Opioid Polypeptide compounds They are produced by the Pituitary gland and the Hypothalamus in Vertebrates The word endogenous means "arising from within" the opposite of Exogenous. An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body This class of drugs includes narcotics, like morphine and codeine,^[9] and also NSAIDs such as aspirin and ibuprofen. The term narcotic (ναρκωτικός is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that benumb or deaden causing loss Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Codeine ( INN) or methylmorphine is an Opiate used for its Analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAID s or NAID s, are drugs with Analgesic, Antipyretic and in higher Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid (ASA (əˌsɛtɨlsælɨˌsɪlɨk ˈæsɨd is a Salicylate drug, often used as an Analgesic to relieve Ibuprofen ( INN) (ˌaɪbjuːˈpɹəʊfɛn (from the now outdated nomenclature i so- bu tyl- pro panoic- phen olic acid is a Non-steroidal

Psychiatric medications

Main article: Psychiatric medications

Zoloft, an antidepressant (and anti-anxiety) medication

Psychiatric medications are prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders. Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as There are 6 major classes of psychiatric medications:

• Antidepressants, which are used to treat disparate disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder. An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Dysthymia (pronounced /dɪsˈθaɪmiə/ is a Mood disorder that falls within the depression spectrum. Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components An eating disorder is a compulsion to eat or avoid eating that negatively affects both one's physical and mental health Borderline personality disorder ( BPD) is a psychiatric diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM-IV Personality ^[10]
• Stimulants, which are used to treat disorders such as attention deficit disorder and narcolepsy and to suppress the appetite. Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness ADHD predominantly inattentive (ADHD-I is one of the three subtypes of Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD Narcolepsy is a Neurological condition most characterized by Excessive Daytime Sleepiness (EDS in which a person falls asleep during the day at inappropriate Anorexia Nervosa is a psychiatric Diagnosis that describes an Eating disorder characterized by low Body weight and Body image distortion
• Antipsychotics, which are used to treat psychoses such as schizophrenia and mania. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition
• Mood stabilizers, which are used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder. This article refers to the medication For other uses see Stabilizer. Schizoaffective disorder is a Psychiatric Diagnosis of neurobiological illness.
• Anxiolytics, which are used to treat anxiety disorders. An anxiolytic is a drug prescribed for the treatment of Symptoms of Anxiety. Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal pathological anxieties Fears and Phobias In clinical usage "fear"
• Depressants, which are used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics. Depressant is a chemical agent that diminishes the function or activity of a specific part of the body (see also Sedative) For the state of mind see Hypnosis. Hypnotic drugs induce Sleep (which differentiates them from the Sedative A sedative, or more specifically a sedative-hypnotic, is a substance that depresses the Central nervous system (CNS resulting in calmness relaxation sleepiness Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις

Recreational drugs

Main article: Recreational drug use

Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:

• Stimulants, which elevate the central nervous system. Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. These are used recreationally for their euphoric and performance-enhancing effects. Euphoria is a medically recognized emotional state related to Pleasure and Happiness.
• Hallucinogens, which induce perceptual and cognitive distortions. The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories Psychedelics, Dissociatives
• Hypnotics, which are used recreationally because they induce inebriation. For the state of mind see Hypnosis. Hypnotic drugs induce Sleep (which differentiates them from the Sedative Drunkenness or inebriation is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of Alcoholic beverages to a degree that mental and physical faculties are noticeably
• Analgesics, which are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects. Euphoria is a medically recognized emotional state related to Pleasure and Happiness.
• Inhalants, in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor inducing stupefying effects.

Examples include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, and cannabis. Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Cannabis ( Cán-na-bis) is a Genus of Flowering plants that includes three putative species Cannabis sativa subsp ^[11]

In many cultures, possessing or having used recreational drugs is seen as a status symbol. In Sociology or Anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in Society (one's Social position) Recreational drugs, especially those known as club drugs, are seen as status symbols at social events such as at nightclubs and parties. Club drugs are a loosely-defined category of Recreational drugs which are associated with discothèques in the 1970s and Dance clubs parties and Raves in A nightclub (or "night club" or "club" is a drinking, dancing, and entertainment venue which does its primary business after dark ^[12] This is true of many cultures throughout history; drugs have been viewed as status symbols since ancient times. For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now ^[13]

Ritual and spiritual use

Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of spiritual hallucinogen use. Timothy Francis Leary ( October 22, 1920 &ndash May 31, 1996) was an American Writer, Psychologist, Futurist

Main article: Entheogens

Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context Native Americans have used mescaline-containing peyote cacti for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years. Mescaline or 345-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally-occurring Psychedelic Alkaloid of the Phenethylamine class Lophophora williamsii (loʊˈfɒfərə wɪlˈjæmsiaɪ lō-fof′ŏ-ră will-yăm′sē-ī better known by its common name Peyote, (from the ^[14] The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe. Muscimol ( Agarin, Pantherine) is the major Psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, ^[15] Various other hallucinogens, including jimsonweed, psilocybin mushrooms, and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies for centuries. Jimsonjade, known by the Common names jimson weed, ditch weed, Good weed, loco weed, Korean morning glory Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a ^[16] There is speculation that hallucinogenic mushrooms and cacti greatly influenced the major religions of India, North and South America, the Middle East, and Europe, including Christianity. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings ^[16]

The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. The Counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s refers to a period between 1960 and 1973 that began in the United States as a reaction against Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new religious movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as sacraments. Timothy Francis Leary ( October 22, 1920 &ndash May 31, 1996) was an American Writer, Psychologist, Futurist A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is "a Rite in which God is uniquely active ^[17] In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote. Native American Church, a religious denomination which practices Peyotism or the Peyote religion originated in the U Lophophora williamsii (loʊˈfɒfərə wɪlˈjæmsiaɪ lō-fof′ŏ-ră will-yăm′sē-ī better known by its common name Peyote, (from the However, the bona fide religious use of Peyote, regardless of ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon. ^[18]

Administration

For a substance to be psychoactive, it must cross the blood-brain barrier so it can affect neurochemical function. The blood-brain barrier (BBB is a metabolic or cellular structure in the Central nervous system (CNS that restricts the passage of various chemical substances and microscopic Psychoactive drugs are administered in several different ways. In Pharmacology and Toxicology, a route In medicine, most psychiatric drugs, such as fluoxetine, quetiapine, and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablet or capsule form. Quetiapine ( kwe-TYE-a-peen marketed by AstraZeneca as Seroquel and by Orion Pharma as Ketipinor, is an Atypical antipsychotic Lorazepam (also known by its brand name Ativan or Temesta) is a Benzodiazepine drug with short to medium duration of action Ingestion is the consumption of a substance by an Organism. In Animals it normally is accomplished by taking in the substance through the Mouth into the A tablet is a mixture of active substances and Excipients usually in powder form pressed or compacted into a solid In the manufacture of pharmaceuticals encapsulation refers to a range of techniques used to enclose medicines in a relatively stable shell known as a capsule, allowing them However, certain medical psychoactives are administered via inhalation, injection, or rectal suppository/enema. Inhalation (also known as respiration) is the movement of air from the external environment through the air ways and into the Alveoli. An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A suppository is a drug delivery system that is inserted either into the Rectum (rectal suppository Vagina (vaginal suppository or Urethra (urethral An enema (plural enemata or enemas) is the procedure of introducing liquids into the Rectum and colon via the Anus. Recreational drugs can be administered in several additional ways that are not common in medicine. Certain drugs, such as alcohol and caffeine, are ingested in beverage form; nicotine and cannabis are often smoked; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and certain crystalline drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamines are often insufflated. Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Cannabis ( Cán-na-bis) is a Genus of Flowering plants that includes three putative species Cannabis sativa subsp Smoking is a practice where a substance most commonly Tobacco, is burned and the Smoke tasted or inhaled Lophophora williamsii (loʊˈfɒfərə wɪlˈjæmsiaɪ lō-fof′ŏ-ră will-yăm′sē-ī better known by its common name Peyote, (from the Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Insufflation (Latin insufflatio "blowing on or into" is the practice of inhaling substances into a Body cavity. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug. ^[19]

Effects

Subjective and behavioral effects

The following Venn diagram attempts to organize and provide a basic overview of the most common psychoactive drugs into intersecting groups and subgroups based upon the subjective and behavioral effects they cause in humans as well as by their pharmacological classification. Venn diagrams or set diagrams are Diagrams that show all hypothetically possible Logical relations between a finite collection of sets (groups ^{[20][21][22][23][24]} Items within each subgroup are close to those of most similar method of action, and also follow a general placement in accordance with the legend below the diagram. Primary intersections are represented via color mixing.

STIMULANTS

Sympathomimetic Amines

Psychomotor Stimulants

Amphetamines

Cathinone (Khat)

Methylphenidate

Cocaine

Aminoketones

Bupropion

Diethylpropion

SSRIs

Fluoxetine

Fluvoxamine

Paroxetine

Sertraline

MAOIs

TCAs

TeCAs

Maprotiline

Mirtazapine

Trazodone

Yohimbine

Ephedrine

Pseudoephedrine

Synephrine

Methylxanthines

Caffeine

Theophylline

Theobromine

ANTIPSYCHOTICS

Atypical antipsychotics

Clozapine

Risperidone

Olanzapine

Quetiapine

Sulpiride

Ziprasidone

Typical antipsychotics

Haloperidol

Fluphenazine

Thioridazine

Chlorpromazine

Pimozide

Perphenazine

CBD

Cholinergics

Nicotine

Betel nut

Muscarine

Atomoxetine

DEPRESSANTS

Sedative Hypnotics

Alcohol

Ether

Barbiturates

Chloroform

Chloral hydrate

Methaqualone

GHB

Benzodiazepines

Alprazolam

Diazepam

Flunitrazepam

Temazepam

Lorazepam

Narcotic Analgesics

Opium

Codeine

Morphine

Heroin

Oxycodone

Hydrocodone

Methadone

Fentanyl

Kavalactones

Psychedelics

Cannabis

THC

MDMA

MDA

MDEA

2CI

2CB

AMT

Mescaline

2CE

DOM

DOC

LSA

LSD

Psilocybin

DPT

DMT

Ibogaine

Dissociatives

Nitrous oxide

Ketamine

DXM

Tiletamine

PCP

Salvinorin A

Ibotenic acid

Muscimol

Deliriants

Dimenhydrinate

Diphenhydramine

Scopolamine

Atropine

HALLUCINOGENS

Legend

Primary groups

• Blue: Stimulants generally increase in potency to the upper left. Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness Sympathomimetic drugs are substances that mimic the effects of the Catecholamines Epinephrine (adrenaline Norepinephrine (noradrenaline and/or Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors ( DARI) Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors, Dopamine Transporter Inhibitors are compounds that inhibit the Reuptake of extracellular Amphetamine, and related drugs such as Methamphetamine are a group of drugs that act by increasing levels of Norepinephrine, Serotonin, and Dopamine Cathinone ( β - keto[[amphetamine]] is a Monoamine Alkaloid found in the Shrub Catha edulis ( Khat KHAT (1210 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Sports format Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant A ketone (pronounced as key tone) is either the Functional group characterized by a Carbonyl group (O=C linked to two other Carbon atoms or Bupropion ( INN, previously known as amfebutamone; sold as Wellbutrin, Zyban, and several other Trade names is an atypical Antidepressant Diethylcathinone (also called Diethylpropion and Amfepramone) is a Sympathomimetic Stimulant drug marketed as an appetite Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs) are a class of Antidepressants used in the treatment of depression, Anxiety disorders Fluvoxamine ( Luvox) is an Antidepressant which functions as a Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Paroxetine (trade names Seroxat, Paxil, Parotin, Aropax, Xetanor, ParoMerck, Rexetin) is a Selective serotonin Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs) are a class of powerful antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression. Tricyclic antidepressants (abbreviation TCAs) are a class of Antidepressant drugs first used in the 1950s There are also several chemically unrelated tetracyclic Antibiotics based on Tetracycline. Maprotiline (sold as Deprilept, Ludiomil, Psymion) is a Tetracyclic antidepressant. Mirtazapine is an Antidepressant introduced by Organon International in 1994 used for the treatment of moderate to severe depression. Trazodone (trade names Desyrel, Molipaxin, Trittico, Thombran, Trialodine, Trazorel) is a Psychoactive compound Yohimbine, also known under the antiquated names quebrachin, aphrodin, corynine, yohimvetol and hydroergotocin, is a purported Ephedrine (EPH is a Sympathomimetic Amine commonly used as a Stimulant, appetite suppressant concentration aid Decongestant, and to treat Pseudoephedrine (commonly abbreviated as PSE is a sympathomimetic Amine commonly used as a Decongestant. Synephrine (or oxedrine) is a Drug aimed at encouraging fat loss Xanthine (ˈzænθiːn ˈzænθaɪn] (37-dihydro-purine-26-dione is a Purine base found in most body tissues and fluids and in other organisms Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Theophylline, also known as dimethylxanthine, is a Methylxanthine drug used in therapy for Respiratory diseases such as COPD or Asthma Theobromine, also known as xantheose, which also includes the similar compounds Theophylline and Caffeine. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a group of Antipsychotic drugs used to treat psychiatric conditions Clozapine (sold as Clozaril, Leponex, Fazaclo, Froidir; Gen-Clozapine in Canada Clozaril, Denzapine, Risperidone (pronounced Ris-PER-ǐ-dōn and sold under the trade name Risperdal in the Netherlands, United States, Canada, the Olanzapine ( Zyprexa, Zyprexa Zydis, Zalasta, Zolafren, Olzapin, or in combination with Fluoxetine Symbyax) is Quetiapine ( kwe-TYE-a-peen marketed by AstraZeneca as Seroquel and by Orion Pharma as Ketipinor, is an Atypical antipsychotic Sulpiride (sold as Meresa, Sulpirid Ratiopharm, Sulpirid Neuraxpharm, Bosnyl, Dogmatil, Eglonyl, Sulpiryd Ziprasidone (marketed as Geodon, Zeldox) was the fifth Atypical antipsychotic to gain FDA approval (February 2001 Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as first generation antipsychotics, conventional antipsychotics, classical neuroleptics, or major tranquilizers Haloperidol is a Typical antipsychotic. It is in the Butyrophenone class of Antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar Fluphenazine (marketed as Prolixin is a Typical antipsychotic drug Thioridazine is a Piperidine Antipsychotic drug belonging to the Phenothiazine drug group and was previously widely used in the treatment Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Pimozide (sold as Orap) is an Antipsychotic drug. It was discovered at Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1963. Perphenazine is a Typical antipsychotic drug. Chemically it is classified as a piperazinyl Phenothiazine. Cannabidiol, also known as CBD, is a cannabinoid found in Cannabis. The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Muscarine, L-(+-muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain Mushrooms particularly in Inocybe Atomoxetine is a non- Stimulant drug approved for the treatment of Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD Depressant is a chemical agent that diminishes the function or activity of a specific part of the body (see also Sedative) A sedative, or more specifically a sedative-hypnotic, is a substance that depresses the Central nervous system (CNS resulting in calmness relaxation sleepiness For the state of mind see Hypnosis. Hypnotic drugs induce Sleep (which differentiates them from the Sedative Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system Depressants and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects from mild Sedation Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl Chloral hydrate is a Sedative and Hypnotic drug as well as a Chemical reagent and precursor Methaqualone is a Sedative drug which is similar in effect to Barbiturates a general CNS Depressant. gamma -Hydroxybutyric acid, 4-hydroxybutanoic acid, GHB, or fantasy is a naturally-occurring substance found in the Central nervous The benzodiazepines (pronounced, often abbreviated to "benzos") are a class of Psychoactive drugs with varying Hypnotic Alprazolam, also known under the trade names Xanax and Niravam, is a short-acting drug of the Benzodiazepine class used to treat moderate Diazepam (daɪˈæzɨpæm first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche, is a Benzodiazepine derivative Drug. Flunitrazepam (ˌfluːnaɪˈtræzəpæm is a highly potent Hypnotic drug with powerful Sedative, Anxiolytic, Amnestic, and Skeletal Temazepam (marketed under brand names Restoril, Euhypnos, Normison, Remestan, Tenox and Norkotral) is an intermediate-acting Lorazepam (also known by its brand name Ativan or Temesta) is a Benzodiazepine drug with short to medium duration of action An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Codeine ( INN) or methylmorphine is an Opiate used for its Analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Oxycodone is an Opioid Analgesic Medication synthesized from Thebaine. Hydrocodone or dihydrocodeinone is a semi-synthetic Opioid derived from two of the naturally occurring Opiates Codeine and Thebaine Methadone ( Dolophine Amidone Methadose Physeptone Heptadon and many others is a synthetic Opioid, used medically as an Analgesic, Antitussive Fentanyl is one of the most powerful Opioid Analgesics with a potency approximately 81 times that of Morphine. Kavalactones are the main psychoactive components of the roots of Piper methysticum (kava a shrub common on some Pacific Ocean islands Psychedelic drugs are Psychoactive drugs whose primary action is to alter the thought processes of the brain and perception of the mind Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a MDMA ( 34-methylenedioxy- N -methylamphetamine) most commonly known today by the street name Ecstasy (often abbreviated E, X, 34-Methylenedioxyamphetamine ( MDA or Tenamfetamine) is a Psychedelic hallucinogenic drug and empathogen/entactogen of the MDEA (also MDE) which stands for 34-methylenedioxy- N -ethylamphetamine is a Psychedelic hallucinogenic drug and Empathogen-entactogen 2C-I is a psychedelic drug and Phenethylamine of the 2C family. 2C-B or 4-bromo-25-dimethoxyphenethylamine is a psychedelic drug of the 2C family, an entactogen. α-Methyl-tryptamine, also known as alpha-methyltryptamine, α-MT, AMT or IT-290, is a synthetic drug of the Tryptamine Mescaline or 345-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally-occurring Psychedelic Alkaloid of the Phenethylamine class 2C-E (25-dimethoxy-4-ethylphenethylamine is a psychedelic drug and phenethylamine of the 2C family. DOM (or STP, allegedly standing for Serenity Tranquility and Peace but based on the motor oil company STP as named by Owsley Stanley) is a Psychedelic DOC or 25-dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine is a potent Psychedelic Amphetamine. LSA, also known as d-lysergic acid amide, d-lysergamide, ergine, and LA-111, is an Alkaloid of the Ergoline family Psilocybin (IPA /saɪləˈsaɪbɪn/ (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic Indole of the Tryptamine family found in Psilocybin Dipropyltryptamine ( DPT) is a psychedelic drug belonging to the Tryptamine family Dimethyltryptamine (DMT also known as NN -dimethyltryptamine, is a naturally occurring Tryptamine and potent psychedelic drug found not only in Ibogaine is a naturally-occurring Psychoactive compound found in a number of plants principally in a member of the dogbane family known as iboga ( A dissociative is a drug which reduces (or blocks signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain typically but not necessarily limited to the Senses Such Nitrous oxide, commonly known as " laughing gas," is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula N 2 O. Ketamine is a drug for use in human and veterinary medicine developed by Parke-Davis (today a part of Pfizer) in 1962 Dextromethorphan ( DXM or DM) is an Antitussive (cough suppressant drug found in many over-the-counter cold and Cough medicines Phencyclidine (a complex clip of the chemical name phenylcyclohexylpiperidine, commonly initialised as PCP) is a Dissociative drug Salvinorin A is the main active Psychotropic molecule in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant which has a long history of use as an Entheogen by Ibotenic acid is a Chemical compound that is naturally occurring in the Mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina Muscimol ( Agarin, Pantherine) is the major Psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus The deliriants (or Anticholinergics are a special class of acetylcholine -inhibitor Dissociatives The name comes from their primary effect of inducing Dimenhydrinate (marketed under brand names Dramamine, Gravol and Vertirosan) is an Over-the-counter drug used to prevent Nausea Pharmacological action Diphenhydramine (dye fen hye' dra meen works by blocking the effect of histamine at H1 receptor sites The fictional truth drug Hyoscine-pentothal does not describe real hyoscine accurately Atropine is a Tropane Alkaloid extracted from Deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna) Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium and other plants The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories Psychedelics, Dissociatives
• Red: Depressants generally increase in potency to the lower right.
• Green: Hallucinogens are psychedelic to the left, dissociative to the right, generally less predictable down and to the right, and generally more potent towards the bottom.
• Pink: Antipsychotics are generally more sedative/tranquilizing to the right.

Secondary groups

• Cyan (light blue): Overlap of Stimulants (Blue) and Psychedelic hallucinogens (Green) — Primary psychedelics exhibit a stimulant effect
• Yellow : Overlap of Depressants (Red) and Dissociative hallucinogens (Green) — Primary dissociatives exhibit a depressant effect
• Lavender: Overlap of Stimulants (Blue) and Antipsychotics (Pink) - The modern non-sedating antidepressants.
• Salmon: Overlap of Depressants (Red) and Antipsychotics (Pink) - The older sedating antidepressants and anxiolytics.

Tertiary groups

• Magenta (purple): Overlap of Stimulants (Blue) and Depressants (Red) — Example: nicotine exhibits effects of both.
• White: Overlap of Stimulants, Depressants and Hallucinogens — Example: THC exhibits effects of all three sections.
• Sky-blue: Overlap of Stimulants, Psychedelic hallucinogens and Antipsychotics - The empathogens / entactogens. The terms empathogen and entactogen are different terms used to describe a class of Psychoactive drugs that produce distinctive emotional and social effects similar
• Peach: Overlap of Depressants, Dissociative hallucinogens and Antipsychotics

Quaternary group

• Light-pink: Center overlap of all four sections (Stimulants, Depressants, Hallucinogens and Antipsychotics) - Cannabis, containing both THC and CBD, exhibits a mix of all sections, leaning towards the hallucinogen section due to THC being the primary constituent.

Illustration of the major elements of neurotransmission. Neurotransmission (latin transmissio = passage crossing from transmitto = send let through also called synaptic transmission, is an electrical movement Depending on its method of action, a psychoactive substance may block the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (dendrite), or block reuptake or affect neurotransmitter synthesis in the pre-synaptic neuron (axon). Dendrites (from Greek δένδρον déndron, “tree” are the branched projections of a Neuron that act to conduct the electrochemical An axon or nerve fiber is a long slender projectionof a nerve cell or Neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's Cell

Main article: Neuropsychopharmacology

Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior. Technical advancements in recent years have allowed progress toward the understanding of the Brain and how drugs can be made to affect it There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuroreceptor in the brain. See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article In Biochemistry, a receptor is a Protein molecule embedded in either the Plasma membrane or Cytoplasm of a cell to which a mobile signaling

Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. An agonist is a term used to describe a type of ligand or drug that binds and alters the activity of a receptor. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters or reducing its reuptake from the synapses. In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products Reuptake, or re-uptake, is the reabsorption of a Neurotransmitter by the Neurotransmitter transporter of a pre-synaptic Neuron after Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them. A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or Drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor, but blocks ^[25]

Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug. Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter increases the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter, and the receptors themselves become more sensitive. This is called sensitization. Sensitization is an example of non-associative Learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter causes a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. For medical purposes desensitization is a method to reduce or eliminate an organism's negative reaction to a substance or stimulus Drug tolerance occurs when a subject's reaction to a Psychoactive drug (such as a painkiller or intoxicant decreases so that larger doses are required to achieve the same effect Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to underlie addiction. ^[26]

Affected neurotransmitter systems

The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. It should be noted that many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain. ^[27]

Neurotransmitter/receptor	Classification	Examples
Acetylcholine	Cholinergics (acetylcholine agonists)	nicotine, piracetam
	Anticholinergics (acetylcholine antagonists)	scopolamine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine
Adenosine	Adenosine receptor antagonists[28]	caffeine, theobromine, theophylline
Dopamine	Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs)	cocaine, methylphenidate
	Dopamine receptor antagonists	haloperidol, droperidol
GABA	GABA reuptake inhibitors	tiagabine
	GABA receptor agonists	ethanol, barbiturates, diazepam, muscimol, ibotenic acid
	GABA antagonists	thujone, bicuculline
Norepinephrine	Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors	amoxapine, atomoxetine
	Norepinephrine releasers	mianserin
Serotonin	Serotonin receptor agonists	LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, DMT
	Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)	fluoxetine, sertraline
	Serotonin releasers	MDMA (ecstasy)
AMPA receptor	AMPA receptor antagonists	kynurenic acid, NBQX
Cannabinoid receptor	Cannabinoid receptor agonists	THC
Melanocortin receptor	Melanocortin receptor agonists	bremelanotide
NMDA receptor	NMDA receptor antagonists	ketamine, PCP, DXM
Opioid receptor	μ-opioid receptor agonists	morphine, heroin, oxycodone
	μ-opioid receptor inverse agonists	naloxone, naltrexone
	κ-opioid receptor agonists	salvinorin A, butorphanol, nalbuphine
Monoamine oxidase	Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)	phenelzine, iproniazid
bind to MAO protein transporter	amphetamine, methamphetamine

Addiction

Main article: Addiction

Heroin bottle

Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction. The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central A receptor is cholinergic if it uses Acetylcholine as its Neurotransmitter. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Piracetam (brand name Nootropil, Qropi, Myocalm, Dinagen) is a Nootropic. An anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the Neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the Peripheral nervous system. The fictional truth drug Hyoscine-pentothal does not describe real hyoscine accurately Dimenhydrinate (marketed under brand names Dramamine, Gravol and Vertirosan) is an Over-the-counter drug used to prevent Nausea Pharmacological action Diphenhydramine (dye fen hye' dra meen works by blocking the effect of histamine at H1 receptor sites Adenosine is a Nucleoside composed of a Molecule of Adenine attached to a Ribose sugar molecule ( Ribofuranose) moiety via a β-N9- Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Theobromine, also known as xantheose, which also includes the similar compounds Theophylline and Caffeine. Theophylline, also known as dimethylxanthine, is a Methylxanthine drug used in therapy for Respiratory diseases such as COPD or Asthma Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Haloperidol is a Typical antipsychotic. It is in the Butyrophenone class of Antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar Droperidol ( Dropletan, Dridol or Inapsine) is an Antidopaminergic drug used as an Antiemetic and antipsychotic Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system. Tiagabine (taɪˈæɡəbiːn] is an anti-convulsive Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system Depressants and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects from mild Sedation Diazepam (daɪˈæzɨpæm first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche, is a Benzodiazepine derivative Drug. Muscimol ( Agarin, Pantherine) is the major Psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus Ibotenic acid is a Chemical compound that is naturally occurring in the Mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina Thujone is a Ketone and a monoterpene that exists in two stereoisomeric forms (+-3-thujone or α-thujone and (−-3-thujone Bicuculline (BIC is a light-sensitive competitive antagonist of GABAA receptors Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Amoxapine (brand-names Asendin, Asendis, Defanyl, Demolox, Moxadil) is a Atomoxetine is a non- Stimulant drug approved for the treatment of Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD Mianserin ( Tolvon) is a Tetracyclic antidepressant that has Antihistaminic and hypnosedative but almost no Anticholinergic, effect Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons An agonist is a term used to describe a type of ligand or drug that binds and alters the activity of a receptor. Psilocybin (IPA /saɪləˈsaɪbɪn/ (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic Indole of the Tryptamine family found in Psilocybin Mescaline or 345-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally-occurring Psychedelic Alkaloid of the Phenethylamine class Dimethyltryptamine (DMT also known as NN -dimethyltryptamine, is a naturally occurring Tryptamine and potent psychedelic drug found not only in Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs) are a class of Antidepressants used in the treatment of depression, Anxiety disorders MDMA ( 34-methylenedioxy- N -methylamphetamine) most commonly known today by the street name Ecstasy (often abbreviated E, X, The alpha- a mino-3-hydroxy-5- m ethyl-4-isoxazole' p' ropionic a cid receptor (also known as AMPA receptor Kynurenic acid ( KYNA) is a product of the normal metabolism of amino acid L- Tryptophan. NBQX (23-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoyl-benzoquinoxaline-23-dione is an AMPA Receptor antagonist brown/red powder The cannabinoid receptors are a class of receptors under the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily Melanocortins are a group of Pituitary Peptide hormones that include adrenocorticotropin ( ACTH) and the alpha beta and gamma Melanocyte-stimulating Bremelanotide (formerly PT-141 is a compound developed for use in treating Sexual dysfunction in both men ( Erectile dysfunction or impotence and women ( The NMDA receptor ( NMDAR) is an Ionotropic receptor for Glutamate ( NMDA ( N -methyl D -aspartate is a name of its selective NMDA receptor antagonists are a class of Anesthetics that work to antagonize, or inhibit the action of the N-methyl d-aspartate receptor ( NMDAR Ketamine is a drug for use in human and veterinary medicine developed by Parke-Davis (today a part of Pfizer) in 1962 Phencyclidine (a complex clip of the chemical name phenylcyclohexylpiperidine, commonly initialised as PCP) is a Dissociative drug Dextromethorphan ( DXM or DM) is an Antitussive (cough suppressant drug found in many over-the-counter cold and Cough medicines Opioid receptors are a group of G-protein coupled receptors with Opioids as Ligands The Endogenous Opioids are Dynorphins Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Oxycodone is an Opioid Analgesic Medication synthesized from Thebaine. In Pharmacology, an inverse agonist is an agent which binds to the same receptor binding-site as an Agonist for that receptor and reverses constitutive Naloxone is a drug used to counter the effects of Opioid overdose, for example Heroin or Morphine overdose Naltrexone is an Opioid receptor antagonist used primarily in the management of Alcohol dependence and Opioid dependence. Salvinorin A is the main active Psychotropic molecule in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant which has a long history of use as an Entheogen by Butorphanol ( INN) is a Morphinan -type synthetic Opioid Analgesic. Nalbuphine (nalbuphine hydrochloride is a synthetic Opioid used commercially as an Analgesic under a variety of trade names including Nubain. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs) are a class of powerful antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression. Phenelzine (sold as Nardil) is a Monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI used as an Antidepressant drug. Iproniazid ( iproniazid phosphate, marketed under the names Marsilid, Iprozid, Ipronid, Rivivol, Propilniazida) is a monoamine Amphetamine, and related drugs such as Methamphetamine are a group of drugs that act by increasing levels of Norepinephrine, Serotonin, and Dopamine The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Addiction can be divided into two types: psychological addiction, by which a user feels compelled to use a drug despite negative physical or societal consequence, and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid medically harmful withdrawal. The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Physical dependence (or drug dependence) refers to a state resulting from habitual use of a drug where negative physical Withdrawal symptoms result from abrupt discontinuation Withdrawal, also known as withdrawal/abstinence syndrome, refers to the characteristic signs and symptoms that appear when a drug that causes Physical dependence is ^[29] Not all drugs are physically addictive, but any activity that stimulates the brain's dopaminergic reward system — typically, any pleasurable activity^[30] — can lead to psychological addiction. ^[29] Drugs that are most likely to cause addiction are drugs that directly stimulate the dopaminergic system, like cocaine and amphetamines. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Amphetamine, and related drugs such as Methamphetamine are a group of drugs that act by increasing levels of Norepinephrine, Serotonin, and Dopamine Drugs that only indirectly stimulate the dopaminergic system, such as psychedelics, are not as likely to be addictive. Psychedelic drugs are Psychoactive drugs whose primary action is to alter the thought processes of the brain and perception of the mind

Because so many consumers want to reduce or eliminate their own use of psychoactive drugs,^[31] many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in drug rehabilitation, with varying degrees of success. Drug rehabilitation (often drug rehab or just rehab) is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment for dependency Many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives. ^[32]

Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox. Drug rehabilitation (often drug rehab or just rehab) is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment for dependency Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living In a support group, members provide each other with various types of help usually nonprofessional and nonmaterial for a particular shared usually burdensome characteristic Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Withdrawal, also known as withdrawal/abstinence syndrome, refers to the characteristic signs and symptoms that appear when a drug that causes Physical dependence is Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction. Methadone ( Dolophine Amidone Methadose Physeptone Heptadon and many others is a synthetic Opioid, used medically as an Analgesic, Antitussive An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics to treat and even cure addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice. Psychedelic drugs are Psychoactive drugs whose primary action is to alter the thought processes of the brain and perception of the mind The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as ^[33][34]

Legitimacy

Many recreational drugs are heavily regulated, an indication of widespread moral objection to variation in recreational psychoactive drug use. However, critics believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom. Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force ^[35]

“ We're playing with half a deck as long as we tolerate that the cardinals of government and science should dictate where human curiousity can legitimately send its attention and where it can not. It's an essentially preposterous situation. It is essentially a civil rights issue, because what we're talking about here is the repression of a religious sensibility. In fact, not a religious sensibility, the religious sensibility. ”

Terence McKenna in: Non-Ordinary States Through Vision Plants, Sound Photosynthesis, Mill Valley CA. Terence Kemp McKenna ( November 16 1946 – April 3 2000) was a Writer, Philosopher, and Ethnobotanist. , 1988, ISBN 1-569-64709-7

In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional. Constitutionality is the status of a law, a procedure or an act's accordance with the laws or guidelines set forth in the applicable Constitution. ^[36] Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. The '''prohibition of drugs''' is a subject of considerable controversy At the beginning of the 21st century, legally prescribed illegal psychoactive drugs used for legitimate purposes have been targeted by the US Justice System. ^[37]

“ The use of drugs to alter consciousness is nothing new. [. . . ]
  It is my belief that the desire to alter consciousness periodically is an innate, normal drive analogous to hunger or the sexual drive. Note that I do not say ‘desire to alter consciousness by means of chemical agents. ’ Drugs are merely one means of satisfying this drive; there are many others, and I will discuss them in due course. [. . . ] Furthermore, the need for periods of nonordinary consciousness begins to be expressed at ages far too young for it to have much to do with social conditioning. Anyone who watches very young children without revealing his presence will find them regularly practicing techniques that induce striking changes in mental states. Three- and four-year-olds, for example, commonly whirl themselves into vertiginous stupors. They hyperventilate and have other children squeeze them around the chest until they faint. They also choke each other to produce loss of consciousness.
  To my knowledge these practices appear spontaneously among children of all societies, and I suspect they have done so throughout history as well. In our society, children quickly learn to keep this sort of play out of sight of grownups, who instinctively try to stop them. ”

Andrew Weil: The Natural Mind—An Investigation of Drugs and the Higher Consciousness, Houghton Mifflin, 1985, chapter 2 “Why People Take Drugs”, pp. Andrew Thomas Weil (born 1942) is an American Author and Physician, best known for establishing and popularizing the field of integrative  17–20, ISBN 0-395-91156-7

Legality

The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of history; the Opium Wars and Prohibition are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing In the United States, the term Prohibition refers to the period from 1920 to 1933 during which the sale manufacture and transportation of alcohol for consumption However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the United Nations. The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is an international Treaty to prohibit production and supply of specific (nominally Narcotic) Drugs and of drugs A Treaty is an agreement under International law entered into by actors in international law namely States and International organizations. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Signed by 73 nations including the United States, the USSR, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to recreational drugs by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes ^[38] All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands ^[39]

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are over the counter and which are only available with a prescription. Over-the-counter (OTC drugs are medicines that may be sold without a prescription, in contrast to Prescription drugs The name "over-the-counter" A prescription (℞ is a health-care program implemented by a Physician or other medical practitioner in the form of instructions that govern the plan of care for an individual ^[40] However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The Controlled Substances Act ( CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control ^[41] Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 (Title 23 USC §158 was passed on July 17 1984 by the United States Congress as a mechanism whereby all ^[42] Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments. ^[43] Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries. ^[44][45][46]

In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and antitussives. Over-the-counter (OTC drugs are medicines that may be sold without a prescription, in contrast to Prescription drugs The name "over-the-counter" An anti-emetic is a drug that is effective against Vomiting and Nausea. A cough medicine is a medicinal drug used to treat Coughing and related conditions Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy. An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness ^[47][48]

See also

• Contact high
• Demand reduction
• Designer drug
• Drug
• Drug addiction
• Drug rehabilitation
• Hard and soft drugs
• Neuropsychopharmacology
• Poly drug use
• Psychedelic plants
• Responsible drug use

References

External links

• Erowid: Extensive online library primarily relating to psychoactive drugs (Wikipedia article about the website: Erowid)
• Journal of Psychoactive Drugs: The first journal established to discuss drugs and drug abuse in the United States. Erowidorg, also called The Vaults of Erowid, is an online Library of information about psychoactive plants and chemicals. (Wikipedia article about the website: Journal of Psychoactive Drugs)
• Report by the Dutch Government Stating Psilocybin's Relative Harmlessness
• The Lycæum: Resources and discussions relating to psychoactive drugs
• Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence by the WHO
• BehaveNet Clinical Capsules: Comprehensive database of psychoactive substances and related pharmacological information
• Research into the cerebral and neuronal effects of drugs use