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An MRI scan of a human brain and head. The brain is the most important organ studied by psychiatrists.
An MRI scan of a human brain and head. The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS In Anatomy, the head of an Animal is the Rostral part (from Anatomical position that usually comprises the Brain, Eyes The brain is the most important organ studied by psychiatrists. In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument A psychiatrist (also archaically called an alienist) is a Physician who specializes in Psychiatry and is certified in treating Mental disorders [1]

Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders in humans. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the A specialty in Medicine is a branch of medical science other than General practice. Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted In Medicine, prevention is any activity which reduces the burden of mortality or morbidity from Disease. See also Mental disorder The treatment of mental disorders includes various forms of Psychotherapy, Psychiatric medication, and other practices Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus [2][3][4] The science of the clinical application of psychiatry has been considered a bridge between the social world and those who are mentally ill. [5] Both its research and clinical application are considered interdisciplinary. [6] Because of this, various subspecialties and theoretical approaches exist in psychiatric research and practice. Psychiatrists can be considered physicians who specialize in the doctor-patient relationship[7] utilizing some of medicine's newest classification schemes, diagnostic tools and treatments. A psychiatrist (also archaically called an alienist) is a Physician who specializes in Psychiatry and is certified in treating Mental disorders A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health [8][9][10]

Ancient psychiatry originated in the 5th century BC with the ideology that psychotic disorders were supernatural in origin. [11] At that time clergy were the individuals in society with the responsibility of "curing" mental disorders. Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. [11] In the Middle Ages, psychiatric hospitals were first created as custodial institutions to house those with mental disorders,[12] and to provide early forms of treatment. [13] By the 18th century, mental health institutions utilized more elaborate treatments for those with mental disorders. [14] As a result of these early psychiatric interventions, the 19th century saw a massive increase in patient populations. [15] This dramatic increase led to the decline of treatments offered in such institutions and damage to the reputation of psychiatry. [16] The 20th century saw a rebirth of a biological understanding of mental disorders as well the introduction of disease classification. [17][18] The shift of psychiatry to the hard sciences moved psychiatry into a different direction which resulted in an altered doctor-patient relationship. Hard science is a term used to describe Natural sciences and Physical sciences as distinct from Social science. The doctor - Patient relationship is central to the practice of Medicine and is essential for the delivery of high-quality health care in the diagnosis and [19] These changes were seen by many in society as negative and anti-psychiatry movements emerged. See also Psychiatry See also Biopsychiatry controversy Anti-psychiatry refers to a post-1960s configuration of groups and theoretical constructs [20] The shift in thinking, as well as the introduction of psychiatric medications, led to the dismantling of state psychiatric hospitals. Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized Deinstitutionalisation (from de-institution-alisation is the process of replacing long-stay mental institutions with less isolated Community mental health services [21] While community treatment was seen as the single solution for those suffering from mental disorders, clinicians soon realized that it was only another treatment option following the drift of disturbed populations into homelessness and prisons. [22] The dramatic changes associated with psychiatric diagnoses and treatments have pushed the field into recognizing the balance between the biological and social sciences and has called for a significant demand of research looking into the origins, classification, and treatment of mental disorders. [23][24]

Contents

Theory and focus

"Psychiatry, more than any other branch of medicine, forces its practitioners to wrestle with the nature of evidence, the validity of introspection, problems in communication, and other long-standing philosophical issues" (Guze, 1992, p.4). Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric

Psychiatry, a word coined by Johann Christian Reil in 1808, has historically been seen as a specialty of medicine which acted as an intermediary between the world from a social context and the world from the perspective of those who are mentally ill. [5] Those who practice psychiatry are different than most other mental health professionals and physicians in that they must be familiar with both the social and biological sciences. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles [24] The discipline is interested in the operations of different organs and body systems as classified by the patient's subjective experiences and the objective physiology of the patient. [25] Psychiatry exists to treat mental disorders which are conventionally divided into three very general categories; mental illness, severe learning disability, and personality disorder. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Character Disorder is a class of mental disorders characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of feeling thinking and behavior [26] While the focus of psychiatry has changed little throughout time, the diagnostic and treatment processes have evolved dramatically and continue to do so. Since the late 20th century, the field of psychiatry has continued to become more biological and less conceptually isolated from the field of medicine. [27]

Scope of practice

While the medical specialty of psychiatry utilizes research in the field of neuroscience, psychology, medicine, biology, biochemistry, and pharmacology,[6] it has generally been considered a middle ground between neurology and psychology. Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs [7] Unlike other physicians and neurologists, psychiatrists specialize in the doctor-patient relationship and are trained in the use of psychotherapy and other therepautic communication techniques. The doctor - Patient relationship is central to the practice of Medicine and is essential for the delivery of high-quality health care in the diagnosis and [7] Psychiatrists can therefore prescribe medication, order laboratory tests, utilize neuroimaging in a clinical setting, and conduct physical examinations. A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a Laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the Health Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs [28]

Ethics

Like other professions, the World Psychiatric Association issues an ethical code to govern the conduct of psychiatrists. Professional ethics concerns the moral issues that arise because of the specialist knowledge that professionals attain and how the use of this knowledge should be governed when providing The World Psychiatric Association (WPA is an international umbrella organisation of psychiatric societies In the context of a code that is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or quasi-governmental organ to regulate that profession an ethical code may be styled as a code of professional The psychiatric code of ethics, first set forth through the Declaration of Hawaii in 1977, has been expanded through a 1983 Vienna update and, in 1996, the broader Madrid Declaration. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the The code was further revised in Hamburg, 1999. The World Psychiatric Association code covers such matters as patient assessment, up-to-date knowledge, the human dignity of incapacitated patients, confidentiality, research ethics, sex selection, euthanasia,[29] organ transplantation, torture,[30][31] the death penalty, media relations, genetics, and ethnic or cultural discrimination. Euthanasia (literally "good death" in Ancient Greek) refers to the practice of ending a life in a painless manner Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. [32] In establishing such ethical codes, the profession has responded to a number of controversies about the practice of psychiatry.


Various subspecialties and/or theoretical approaches exist which are related to the field of psychiatry. They include the following:

History

Ancient times

Starting in the 5th century BC, mental disorders, especially those with psychotic traits, were considered supernatural in origin. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events [11] This view existed throughout ancient Greece and Rome. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC [11] Early manuals written about mental disorders were created by the Greeks. [33] In 4th century BC, Hippocrates theorized that physiological abnormalities may be the root of mental disorders. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca [11] However further explorations of this perspective ceased shortly thereafter following the fall of the Roman Empire. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. [11] Religious leaders and others returned to using early versions of exorcisms to treat mental disorders which often utilized cruel, harsh, and other barbarous methods. Exorcism (from Late Latin exorcismus, from Greek exorkizein - to adjure is the practice of evicting Demons or other evil [11]

Middle Ages

Main article: Islamic psychology

The first psychiatric hospitals were built in the medieval Islamic world from the 8th century. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is The first was built in Baghdad in 705, followed by Fes in the early 8th century, and Cairo in 800. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Unlike medieval Christian physicians who relied on demonological explanations for mental illness, medieval Muslim physicians relied mostly on clinical observations. Demonic possession is often the term used to describe the control over a human form by Satan himself or one of his assigned advocates Clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of Psychology for the purpose of understanding preventing They made significant advances to psychiatry and were the first to provide psychotherapy and moral treatment for mentally ill patients, in addition to other forms of treatment such as baths, drug medication, music therapy and occupational therapy. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Moral Treatment was an approach to Mental disorder based on Humane Psychosocial care or Moral discipline that emerged in the 18th century and Bathing is the immersion of the body in a Fluid, usually Water or an aqueous solution Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of its facets&mdashphysical emotional mental social aesthetic and spiritual&mdashto help clients to improve Occupational Therapy, often abbreviated "OT", is the "use of productive or creative activity in the treatment or rehabilitation of physically cognitively or In the 10th century, the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) combined psychological methods and physiological explanations to provide treatment to mentally ill patients. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical His contemporary, the Arab physician Najab ud-din Muhammad, first described a number of mental illnesses such as agitated depression, neurosis, priapism and sexual impotence (Nafkhae Malikholia), psychosis (Kutrib), and mania (Dual-Kulb). The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''Mixed state''' from the main article Bipolar disorder In the context of Mental This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Priapism (πριαπισμός is a potentially harmful and painful medical condition in which the erect Penis does not return to its flaccid state despite Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition [13]

In the 11th century, another Persian physician Avicenna recognized 'physiological psychology' in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as a percursor to the word association test developed by Carl Jung in the 19th century. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Psychophysiology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Word Association is a common Word game involving an Exchange of words that are associated together [34] Avicenna was also an early pioneer of neuropsychiatry, and first described a number of neuropsychiatric conditions such as hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Neuropsychiatry is the branch of Medicine dealing with Mental disorders attributable to diseases of the Nervous system. A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. Insomnia is a symptom of a sleeping disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep despite the opportunity Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition A nightmare is a Dream which causes a strong unpleasant emotional response from the sleeper typically fear or horror being in situations of extreme danger or the sensations Dementia (from Latin de- "apart away" + Mens ( genitive mentis) "mind" is the progressive decline Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Paralysed redirects here For other uses see xx Paralysed (disambiguation Paralysis is the complete loss of Muscle function A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain Vertigo (from the Latin vertere, to turn and the suffix -igo, a condition i Tremor is an unintentional somewhat rhythmic muscle movement involving to-and-from movements (oscillations of one or more parts of the body [35]

Psychiatric hospitals were built in medieval Europe from the 13th century to treat mental disorders but were utilized only as custodial institutions and did not provide any type of treatment. [12] Founded in the 13th century, Bethlem Royal Hospital in London is one of the oldest psychiatric hospitals. The Bethlem Royal Hospital of London, which has been variously known as St London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. [12] By 1547 the City of London acquired the hospital and continued its function until 1948. [36]

Many consider Philippe Pinel to be the father of modern psychiatry.
Many consider Philippe Pinel to be the father of modern psychiatry. Philippe Pinel ( April 20, 1745 - October 25, 1826) was a French physician who was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological

Early modern period

In 1656, Louis XIV of France created a public system of hospitals for those suffering from mental disorders, but as in England, no real treatment was being applied. Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent [36] In 1758 English physician William Battie wrote the Treatise on Madness which called for treatments to be utilized in asylums. William Battie (sometimes spelt Batty) 1 September 1703 or 1704– 13 June 1776, was an English Physician who [14] Thirty years later the new ruling monarch in England, George III, was known to be suffering from a mental disorder. George III (George William Frederick 4 June 1738 George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom much of the rest of Europe and places [11] Following the King's remission in 1789, mental illness was seen as something which could be treated and cured. Remission is the state of absence of Disease activity in patients with known Chronic illness. [11] By 1792 French physician Philippe Pinel introduced humane treatment approaches to those suffering from mental disorders. Philippe Pinel ( April 20, 1745 - October 25, 1826) was a French physician who was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological Moral Treatment was an approach to Mental disorder based on Humane Psychosocial care or Moral discipline that emerged in the 18th century and [11] William Tuke adopted the methods outlined by Pinel and that same year Tuke opened the York Retreat in England. William Tuke ( March 24, 1732 - 1822 was an English Businessman, Philanthropist and Quaker. The Retreat, commonly known as the York Retreat, is a place in England for the treatment of people with mental health needs. [11] That institution became known as a model throughout the world for humane and moral treatment of patients suffering from mental disorders. [37] It inspired similar institutions in the United States, most notably the Brattleboro Retreat and the Hartford Retreat (now the Institute of Living). The Brattleboro Retreat is a private non-profit Psychiatric hospital that pioneered mental health care in the United States The Institute of Living (IOL is a mental health center in Hartford Connecticut affiliated with Hartford Hospital.

19th century

At the turn of the century, England and France combined only had a few hundred individuals in asylums. [38] By the late 1890s and early 1900s, this number skyrocketed to the hundreds of thousands. [38] The United States housed 150,000 patients in mental hospitals by 1904. [38] German speaking countries housed more than 400 public and private sector asylums. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. [38] These asylums were critical to the evolution of psychiatry as they provided a universal platform of practice throughout the world. [38]

Universities often played a part in the administration of the asylums. [39] Due to the relationship between the universities and asylums, scores of competitive psychiatrists were being molded in Germany. [39] Germany became known as the world leader in psychiatry during the nineteenth century. [38] The country possessed more than 20 separate universities all competing with each other for scientific advancement. [38] However, because of Germany's individual states and the lack of national regulation of asylums, the country had no organized centralization of asylums or psychiatry. [38] Britain, like Germany, also lacked a centralized organization for the administration of asylums. [40] This deficit hindered the diffusion of new ideas in medicine and psychiatry. [40]

In 1834, Anna Marsh, a physician's widow, deeded the funds to build the United States' first financially-stable private asylum in 1834. Anna Marsh (birth year unknown died 1834 established the Vermont Asylum of the Insane in 1834 The Brattleboro Retreat marked the beginning of America's private psychiatric hospitals challenging state institutions for patients, funding, and influence. The Brattleboro Retreat is a private non-profit Psychiatric hospital that pioneered mental health care in the United States Although based on England's York Retreat, it would be followed by speciality institutions of every treatment philosophy. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Retreat, commonly known as the York Retreat, is a place in England for the treatment of people with mental health needs.

In 1838, France enacted a law to regulate both the admissions into asylums and asylum services across the country. [41] By 1840, asylums existing as therapeutic institutions existed throughout Europe and the United States. [15]

Emil Kraepelin studied and promoted ideas of disease classification for mental disorders.
Emil Kraepelin studied and promoted ideas of disease classification for mental disorders. Emil Kraepelin ( February 15, 1856 – October 7, 1926) was a German Psychiatrist.

However, the new and dominating ideas that mental illness could be "conquered" during the mid-nineteenth century all came crashing down. [15] Psychiatrists and asylums were being pressured by an ever increasing patient population. [15] The average number of patients in asylums in the United States jumped 927%. [15] Numbers were similar in England and Germany. [15] Overcrowding was rampant in France where asylums would commonly take in double their maximum capacity. [42] Increases in asylum populations may have been a result of the transfer of care from families and poorhouses, but the specific reasons as to why the increase occurred is still debated today. poorhouse or workhouse is a government-run Facility for the support and housing of dependent or needy persons typically run by a local government entity such as a [43][44] No matter the cause, the pressure on asylums from the increase was taking its toll on the asylums and psychiatry as a specialty. Asylums were once again turning into custodial institutions[45] and the reputation of psychiatry in the medical world had hit an extreme low. [16]

20th century

Disease classification and rebirth of biological psychiatry

The 20th century introduced a new psychiatry into the world. The different perspectives of looking at mental disorders began to be introduced. The career and beginnings of Emil Kraepelin somewhat model this hiatus of psychiatry between the different disciplines. Emil Kraepelin ( February 15, 1856 – October 7, 1926) was a German Psychiatrist. [17] Kraepelin initially was very attracted to psychology and ignored the ideas of anatomical psychiatry. [17] Following his acceptance for a professorship of psychiatry, and later his work in a university psychiatric clinic, Kraepelin's insterest in pure psychology began to fade and he introduced a plan of a more comprehensive psychiatry. [46][18] Kraepelin also began to study and promote the ideas of disease classification for mental disorders, an idea introduced by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum. Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum ( December 28, 1828, Driesen - April 15, 1899) was a German Psychiatrist who practiced medicine [18] The initial ideas behind biological psychiatry, stating that these different disorders were all biological in nature, evolved into a new idea of "nerves" and psychiatry became a sort of rough neurology or neuropsychiatry. [47] Following Sigmund Freud's death, ideas stemming from psychoanalytic theory also began to take root. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Psychoanalytic theory is a general term for approaches to Psychoanalysis which attempt to provide a conceptual framework more-or-less independent of clinical practice rather [48] The psychoanalytic theory became popular among psychiatrists because it allowed the patients to be treated in private practices instead of asylums. [48] However the progress of psychiatry by the 1970s turned psychoanalytic theory into a marginal school of thought within the field. [48]

Otto Loewi's work led to the identification of the first neurotransmitter, acetylcholine.
Otto Loewi's work led to the identification of the first neurotransmitter, acetylcholine. Otto Loewi ( June 3, 1873 &ndash December 25, 1961) was a German pharmacologist whose discovery of Acetylcholine The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central

This period of time saw the reemergence of biological psychiatry. Psychopharmacology became an integral part of psychiatry starting with Otto Loewi's discovery of the first neurotransmitter, acetylcholine. Psychopharmacology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία Otto Loewi ( June 3, 1873 &ndash December 25, 1961) was a German pharmacologist whose discovery of Acetylcholine The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central [49] Neuroimaging was first utilized as a tool for psychiatry in the 1980s. Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain [50] The discovery of chlorpromazine's effectiveness in treating schizophrenia in 1952 revolutionized treatment of the disease, [51] as did lithium carbonate's ability to stabilize mood highs and lows in bipolar disorder in 1948. Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Lithium carbonate is a Chemical compound with the formula Li2CO3 [52] While psychosocial issues were still seen as valid, psychotherapy was seen to be their "cure. "[53] Genetics were once again thought to play a role in mental illness. [49] Molecular biology opened the door for specific genes contributing mental disorders to be identified. [49] By 1995 genes contributing to schizophrenia had been identified on chromosome 6 and those genes contributing to bipolar disorder on chromosomes 18 and 21. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Chromosome 6 is one of the 23 pairs of Chromosomes in Humans People normally have two copies of this chromosome Chromosome 18 is one of the 23 pairs of Chromosomes in Humans People normally have two copies of this chromosome Chromosome 21 is one of the 23 pairs of Chromosomes in Humans People normally have two copies of this chromosome [49]

Anti-psychiatry and deinstitutionalization

The introduction of psychiatric medications and the use of laboratory tests altered the doctor-patient relationship between psychiatrists and their patients. Psychiatric medication is a licenced Psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the Mental state and used to treat Mental disorders Usually utilized A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a Laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the Health The doctor - Patient relationship is central to the practice of Medicine and is essential for the delivery of high-quality health care in the diagnosis and [19] Psychiatry's shift to the hard sciences had been interpreted as a lack of concern for patients. Hard science is a term used to describe Natural sciences and Physical sciences as distinct from Social science. [19] Anti-psychiatry had become more prevalent in the late twentieth century due to this and publications in the media which conceptualized mental disorders as myths. See also Psychiatry See also Biopsychiatry controversy Anti-psychiatry refers to a post-1960s configuration of groups and theoretical constructs [20] Others in the movement argued that psychiatry was a form of social control and demanded that institutionalized psychiatric care, stemming from Pinel's thereapeutic asylum, be abolished. [21] Incidents of physical abuse by psychiatrists took place during the reign of some totalitarian regimes as part of a system to enforce political control with some of the abuse even continuing to our present day. [54] Historical examples of the abuse of psychiatry took place in Nazi Germany [55], in the Soviet Union under Psikhushka, and in the apartheid system in South Africa. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 In the Soviet Union, Psychiatry was used for punitive purposes The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa [56]


Electroconvulsive therapy was one treatment that the anti-psychiatry movement wanted eliminated. Electroconvulsive therapy ( ECT) also known as electroshock, is a controversial psychiatric treatment in which Seizures are electrically induced [57] They alleged that electroconvulsive therapy damaged the brain and it was used as a tool for discipline. [57] While there is no evidence that brain damage was a result of electronconvulsive therapy[58][59][60], there have been isolated incidents where the use of electroconvulsive therapy was threatened to keep the patients "in line. "[57] The prevalence of psychiatric medication helped initiate deinstitutionalization,[61] the process of discharging patients from psychiatric hospitals to the community. Deinstitutionalisation (from de-institution-alisation is the process of replacing long-stay mental institutions with less isolated Community mental health services [62] The pressure from the anti-psychiatry movements and the ideology of community treatment from the medical arena helped sustain deinstitutionalization. [61] Thirty-three years after deinstitutionalization started in the United States, only 19% of the patients in state hospitals remained. [61] Mental health professionals envisioned a process wherein patients would be released into communities where they could participate in a normal life while living in a therapeutic atmosphere. A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. [61]

Transinstitutionalization and the aftermath

In 1963, United States president John F. Kennedy introduced legislation delegating the National Institute of Mental Health to administer Community Mental Health Centers for those being discharged from state psychiatric hospitals. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of The National Institute of Mental Health ( NIMH) is part of the federal government of the United States and the largest research organization in the world specializing in [61] Later, though, the Community Mental Health Center's focus was diverted to provide psychotherapy sessions for those suffering from acute and/or mild mental disorders. [61] Ultimately there were no arrangements made for actively ill patients who were being discharged from hospitals. [61] Some of those suffering from mental disorders drifted into homelessness or ended up in prisons and jails. [61][22] Studies found that 33% of the homeless population and 14% of inmates in prisons and jails were already diagnosed with a mental illness. [61][63]

In 1972, psychologist David Rosenhan published the Rosenhan experiment, a study analyzing the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. David L Rosenhan is an American Psychologist. He is best known for the Rosenhan experiment. The Rosenhan experiment was a famous experiment into the validity of psychiatric Diagnosis conducted by David Rosenhan in 1972 [64] The study arranged for eight individuals with no history of psychopathology to attempt admission into psychiatric hospitals. The individuals included a graduate student, psychologists, an artist, a housewife, and two physicians, including one psychiatrist. All eight individuals were admitted with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Psychiatrists then attempted to treat the individuals using psychiatric medication. All eight were discharged within 7 to 52 days. Rosenhan's study concluded that individuals with no presence of mental disorders could not be distinguished from those suffering from mental disorders. [64] While critics such as Robert Spitzer placed doubt on the validity and credibility of the study, they also conceded that the consistency of psychiatric diagnoses needed improvement. Dr Robert L Spitzer is a Professor of Psychiatry at Columbia University in New York City, United States and is on the research faculty of the [65]

Psychiatry, like many medical specialties, has a continuing, significant demand for research investigating its related diseases, classifications, origins, and treatments. [23] Psychiatry falls into biology's fundamental belief that disease and health are different elements of an individual's adaptation to an environment. [66] But psychiatry also recognizes that the environment of the human species is complex and includes physical, cultural, and relational elements. [66] In addition to external factors, the human brain must recognize or organize an individual's hopes, fears, desires, fantasies and feelings. The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS [66] Psychiatry's difficult task is the attempt to envelop the understanding of these factors so that they can be studied both clinically and physiologically. [66]

Industry and academia

Practitioners

Main article: Psychiatrist

As with most medical specialties, all physicians can diagnose mental disorders and prescribe treatments utilizing principles of psychiatry. A psychiatrist (also archaically called an alienist) is a Physician who specializes in Psychiatry and is certified in treating Mental disorders A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Psychiatrists are physicians who specialize in psychiatry and are certified in treating mental illness using the biomedical approach to mental disorders. A psychiatrist (also archaically called an alienist) is a Physician who specializes in Psychiatry and is certified in treating Mental disorders Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as [67] Psychiatrists may also go through significant training to conduct psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, and/or cognitive behavioral therapy, but it is their medical training, access to medical laboratories, and ability to prescribe medication that differentiates them from other mental health professionals. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Cognitive Therapy (CT is a type of Psychotherapy developed by American Psychiatrist Aaron T A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a Laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the Health A mental health professional is a person who offers services for the purpose of improving an individual's Mental health or to treat Mental illness. [67]

Research

Psychiatric research is, by its very nature, interdisciplinary. From a general perspective it studies and combines social, biological and psychological approaches and how those perspectives cause mental disorders. [68] While practicing psychiatrists and other psychiatric researchers study outcomes from such a wide variety of fields, research institutions and publications exist that are dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of mental disorders within the psychiatric context. [6][69][70][71] Under the supervision of institutional review boards, psychiatric researchers looks at a variety of topics such as neuroimaging, genetics, and psychopharmacology, which in turn help enhance diagnostic consistency, discover new treatment methods, and classify new mental disorders. An institutional review board (IRB also known as an independent ethics committee (IEC or ethical review board (ERB is a Committee that has been [72] On the basis of Tinbergen's four questions a framework of reference or "periodic table" of all fields of anthropological research and humanities can be established. When asked questions of animal and human behavior such as why these creatures see even elementary school children can answer that vision helps them find food and avoid danger It helps to structure interdisciplinarity in Psychiatry e. g. , how Neurology, Psychiatry and Psychotherapy might be connected with other fields of anthropological research. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living

Clinical application

Diagnostic systems

fMRI images such as these may assist in a diagnosis by a psychiatrist.
fMRI images such as these may assist in a diagnosis by a psychiatrist. Functional MRI or functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI is a type of specialized MRI scan

Psychiatric diagnoses take place in a wide variety of settings and are performed by many different health professionals. A health care provider or health professional is an organization or person who delivers proper Health care in a systematic way professionally to any individual in Therefore, the diagnostic procedure may vary greatly based upon these factors. Typically, though, a psychiatric diagnosis utilizes a differential diagnosis procedure where mental status examinations and physical examinations are conducted, pathological, psychopathological and psychosocial histories obtained, neuroimages or other neurophysiological measurements are taken, and personality tests or cognitive tests may be administered. A differential diagnosis (sometimes abbreviated DDx, ddx Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of Mental illness or mental distress or the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative The term psychosocial refers to one in Psychological development in and interaction with a Social environment. Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain Neurophysiology (from Greek grc νεῦρον neuron, "nerve" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία A personality test aims to describe aspects of a person's character that remain stable throughout that person's lifetime the individual's character pattern of behavior thoughts and feelings Cognitive tests are Assessments of the Cognitive capabilities of Humans and Animals Tests administered to Humans include various forms [73][74][75][76][77][10][78] In addition psychiatrists are beginning to utilize genetics during the diagnostic process. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is [9] Some endophenotypes being researched may predispose certain individuals to certain conditions. [79][80]

Diagnostic manuals

Three main diagnostic manuals used to classify mental health conditions are in use today. The ICD-10 is produced and published by the World Health Organisation and includes a section on psychiatric conditions, and is used worldwide. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision ( ICD -10) is a coding of diseases and signs symptoms abnormal findings [81] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, produced and published by the American Psychiatric Association, is solely focused on mental health conditions and is the main classification tool in the United States. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [82] It is currently in its fourth revised edition and is also used worldwide. [82] The Chinese Society of Psychiatry has also produced a diagnostic manual, the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders. The Chinese Society of Psychiatry (CSP is the largest organization for psychiatrists in China The Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders ( CCMD) published by the Chinese Society of Psychiatry (CSP is a clinical guide used in China for the diagnosis of [83]

The stated intention of diagnostic manuals is typically to develop replicable and clinically useful categories and criteria, to facilitate consensus and agreed standards, whilst being atheoretical as regards etiology. [82][8] However, the categories are nevertheless based on particular psychiatric theories and data; they are broad and often specified by numerous possible combinations of symptoms, and many of the categories overlap in symptomology or typically occur together. [84] While originally intended only as a guide for experienced clinicians trained in its use, the nomenclature is now widely used by clinicians, administrators and insurance companies in many countries. [85]

Treatment settings


General considerations

Individuals with mental health conditions are commonly referred to as patients but may also be called clients, consumers, or service recipients. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. Consumers refers to individuals or households that use goods and services generated within the economy. They may come under the care of a psychiatric physician or other psychiatric practitioners by various paths, the two most common being self-referral or referral by a primary-care physician. Alternatively, a person may be referred by hospital medical staff, by court order, involuntary commitment, or, in the UK and Australia, by sectioning under a mental health law. A court order (or court ruling) is an official proclamation by a Judge (or panel of judges that defines the legal relationships between the parties to a hearing Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a Mental health law to commit a person to a Mental hospital, Insane asylum Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a Mental health law to commit a person to a Mental hospital, Insane asylum Mental health law is the area of the law that is applied specifically to persons with a diagnosis or possible diagnosis of mental illness and to the people involved in managing or treating

A psychiatric patient room in the United States.
A psychiatric patient room in the United States.

Whatever the circumstance of a person's referral, a psychiatrist first assesses a person's mental and physical condition. This usually involves interviewing the person and often obtaining information from other sources such as other health and social care professionals, relatives, associates, law enforcement and emergency medical personnel and psychiatric rating scales. A physical examination is usually performed to establish or exclude other illnesses, such as thyroid dysfunction or brain tumors, or identify any signs of self-harm; this examination may be done by someone else other than the psychiatrist, especially if blood tests and medical imaging are performed. Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs Self-injury ( SI) or self-harm ( SH) is deliberate Injury inflicted by a person upon their own body without suicidal intent A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a Blood sample that is usually extracted from a Vein in the arm using a needle, or via Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to create Images of the human body (or parts thereof for clinical purposes ( Medical procedures seeking to

Like all medications, psychiatric medications can cause adverse effects in patients and hence often involve ongoing therapeutic drug monitoring, for instance full blood counts or, for patients taking lithium salts, serum levels of lithium, renal and thyroid function. In Medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as Chemotherapy or Surgery. Therapeutic drug monitoring is a branch of Clinical chemistry that specializes in the measurement of Medication levels in Blood. A complete blood count ( CBC) also known as full blood count ( FBC) or full blood exam ( FBE) or blood panel, is Lithium in pharmacology refers to use of the Lithium Ion, Li+ as a drug Blood plasma is the Liquid component of Blood, in which the Blood cells are suspended Lithium (ˈlɪθiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Li and Atomic number 3 Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is sometimes administered for serious and disabling conditions, especially those unresponsive to medication. Electroconvulsive therapy ( ECT) also known as electroshock, is a controversial psychiatric treatment in which Seizures are electrically induced The efficacity[86] and adverse effects of psychiatric drugs has been challenged. The close relationship between those prescribing psychiatric medication and pharmaceutical companies has become increasingly controversial [87] along with the influence which pharmaceutical companies are exerting on mental health policies. [88][89]

Also controversial are forced drugging and the "lack of insight" label. According to a report published by the National Council on Disability,

Involuntary treatment is extremely rare outside the psychiatric system, allowable only in such cases as unconsciousness or the inability to communicate. People with psychiatric disabilities, on the other hand, even when they vigorously protest treatments they do not want, are routinely subjected to them anyway, on the justification that they "lack insight" or are unable to recognize their need for treatment because of their "mental illness. " In practice, "lack of insight" becomes disagreement with the treating professional, and people who disagree are labeled "noncompliant" or "uncooperative with treatment. "[90]

Inpatient treatment

Psychiatric treatments have changed over the past several decades. See also Mental disorder The treatment of mental disorders includes various forms of Psychotherapy, Psychiatric medication, and other practices In the past, psychiatric patients were often hospitalized for six months or more, with some cases involving hospitalization for many years. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is Today, people receiving psychiatric treatment are more likely to be seen as outpatients. A clinic (or an outpatient clinic) is a small private or public health facility that is devoted to the care of Outpatients, often in a community in contrast If hospitalization is required, the average hospital stay is around one to two weeks, with only a small number receiving long-term hospitalization.

Individuals with mental health problems are commonly referred to as patients but may also be called clients, consumers, or service recipients. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. Consumers refers to individuals or households that use goods and services generated within the economy. They may come under the care of a psychiatric physician or other psychiatric practitioners by various paths, the two most common being self-referral or referral by a primary-care physician. Alternatively, a person may be referred by hospital medical staff, by court order, involuntary commitment, or, in the UK and Australia, by sectioning under a mental health law. A court order (or court ruling) is an official proclamation by a Judge (or panel of judges that defines the legal relationships between the parties to a hearing Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a Mental health law to commit a person to a Mental hospital, Insane asylum Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a Mental health law to commit a person to a Mental hospital, Insane asylum Mental health law is the area of the law that is applied specifically to persons with a diagnosis or possible diagnosis of mental illness and to the people involved in managing or treating

Whatever the circumstance of a person's referral, a psychiatrist first assesses a person's mental and physical condition. This usually involves interviewing the person and often obtaining information from other sources such as other health and social care professionals, relatives, associates, law enforcement and emergency medical personnel and psychiatric rating scales. A physical examination is usually performed to establish or exclude other illnesses, such as thyroid dysfunction or brain tumors, or identify any signs of self-harm; this examination may be done by someone else other than the psychiatrist, especially if blood tests and medical imaging are performed. Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs Self-injury ( SI) or self-harm ( SH) is deliberate Injury inflicted by a person upon their own body without suicidal intent A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a Blood sample that is usually extracted from a Vein in the arm using a needle, or via Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to create Images of the human body (or parts thereof for clinical purposes ( Medical procedures seeking to

Psychiatric inpatients are people admitted to a hospital or clinic to receive psychiatric care. Some are admitted involuntarily, perhaps committed to a secure hospital, or in some jurisdictions to a facility within the prison system. In many countries including the USA and Canada, the criteria for involuntary admission vary with local jurisdiction. They may be as broad as having a mental health condition, or as narrow as being an immediate danger to themselves and/or others. Bed availability is often the real determinant of admission decisions to hard pressed public facilities. European Human Rights legislation restricts detention to medically-certified cases of mental disorder, and adds a right to timely judicial review of detention.

Patients may be admitted voluntarily if the treating doctor considers that safety isn't compromised by this less restrictive option.

Injections are one of many ways to administer psychiatric medication.
Injections are one of many ways to administer psychiatric medication. An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through

Inpatient psychiatric wards may be secure (for those thought to have a particular risk of violence or self-harm) or unlocked/open. Some wards are mixed-sex whilst same-sex wards are increasingly favored to protect women inpatients.

Once in the care of a hospital, people are assessed, monitored, and often given medication and care from a multidisciplinary team, which may include physicians, psychiatric nurse practitioners, psychiatric nurses, clinical psychologists, psychotherapists, psychiatric social workers, occupational therapists and social workers. If a person receiving treatment in a psychiatric hospital is assessed as at particular risk of harming themselves or others, they may be put on constant or intermittent one-to-one supervision, and may be physically restrained or medicated. People on inpatient wards may be allowed leave for periods of time, either accompanied or on their own.

In many developed countries there has been a massive reduction in psychiatric beds since the mid 20th century, with the growth of community care. Standards of inpatient care remain a challenge in some public and private facilities, due to levels of funding, and facilities in developing countries are typically grossly inadequate for the same reason.

Outpatient treatment

People receiving psychiatric care may do so on an inpatient or outpatient basis. Outpatient treatment involves periodic visits to a clinician for consultation in his or her office, usually for an appointment lasting thirty to sixty minutes. These consultations normally involve the psychiatric practitioner interviewing the person to update their assessment of the person's condition, and to provide psychotherapy or review medication. The frequency with which a psychiatric practitioner sees people in treatment varies widely, from days to months, depending on the type, severity and stability of each person's condition, and depending on what the clinician and client decide would be best. Increasingly, psychiatrists are limiting their practice to psychopharmacology (prescribing medications) with less time devoted to psychotherapy or "talk" therapies, or behavior modification. The role of psychiatrists is changing in community psychiatry, with many assuming more leadership roles, coordinating and supervising teams of allied health professionals and junior doctors in delivery of health services.


See also

Related topics

References

General references

Works cited

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External links

Dictionary

psychiatry

-noun

  1. (medicine) The branch of medicine that subjectively diagnoses, treats, and studies mental illness and behavioural conditions.
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