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For the protectionist Australian political party from the 1880s to 1909, see Protectionist Party

Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between nations, through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, and a variety of other restrictive government regulations designed to discourage imports, and to prevent foreign take-over of national companies. The Protectionist Party was an Australian political party formally organised from 1889 until 1909 with policies centred on Protectionism. Economic policy refers to the actions that Governments take in the economic field. For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary An import quota is a type of protectionist Trade restriction that sets a physical limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country in a given period This is closely aligned with anti-globalization, and contrasts with free trade, where no artificial barriers to entry are instituted. " Anti-globalization " is a term that encompasses a number of related ideas Free trade is a system in which the trade of goods and services between or within countries flows unhindered by government-imposed restrictions

The term is mostly used in the context of economics, where protectionism refers to policies or doctrines which "protect" businesses and "living wages" within a country by restricting or regulating trade between foreign nations:

  1. Subsidies - To protect existing businesses from risk associated with change, such as costs of labour, materials, etc. Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Living wage is a term used to describe the minimum hourly wage necessary for a person to achieve some specific standard of living In Economics, a subsidy (also known as a subvention is a form of financial assistance paid to a business or economic sector Risk is a Concept that denotes the precise probability of specific eventualities Manual labour (or manual labor) is physical work done with the hands especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking road building or any
  2. Protectionist Tariffs -
  3. Quotas - to prevent dumping of cheaper foreign goods that would overwhelm the market. For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary An import quota is a type of protectionist Trade restriction that sets a physical limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country in a given period
  4. Intervention - The use of state power to bolster an economic entity. Economic interventionism, is a common term used to describe any activity beyond the basic regulation of fraud and enforcement of contracts undertaken by a government in an effort to affect
  5. Trade restriction
  6. Exchange Rate

Contents

Sub-heading

Protectionism can be described as the economic means to achieve the political goal of an independent nation. A trade restriction is an artificial restriction on the trade of goods between two countries In Finance, the exchange rates (also known as the foreign-exchange rate, forex rate or FX rate) between two currencies specifies how For this reason, the Tariff Act of 1789, signed by President Washington on July 4, was called the "Second Declaration of Independence" by newspapers at the time. The opposite of protectionism, free trade, is the economic means to achieve the political goal of interdependent nations.

Protectionism has frequently been associated with economic theories such as mercantilism, the belief that it is beneficial to maintain a positive trade balance, and import substitution. Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices The balance of trade (or net exports, sometimes symbolized as NX) is the difference between the monetary value of Exports and imports in an Import Substitution Industrialization (also called ISI) is a Trade and economic Policy based on the premise that a Country should

However, virtually all modern economists agree that protectionism is harmful, and that free trade is in the interest of all. Adam Smith famously warned against the 'interested sophistry' of industry, seeking to gain advantage at the cost of the consumers. Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. [1]

Recent examples of protectionism in first world countries are typically motivated by the desire to protect the livelihoods of individuals in politically important domestic industries. Whereas formerly blue-collar jobs were being lost to foreign competition, in recent years there has been a renewed discussion of protectionism due to offshore outsourcing and the loss of white-collar jobs. Offshore outsourcing is the practice of hiring an external organization to perform some business functions in a country other than the one where the products or services White-collar worker refers to a salaried professional or an educated Worker who performs semi-professional office administrative and sales coordination tasks as opposed to

Some may feel that better job choice is more important than lower goods costs. Whether protectionism provides such a tradeoff between jobs and prices has not yet reached a consensus with economists. However, most economists agree that the benefits from free trade in the form of consumer surplus and increased efficiency outweigh the losses of jobs by at least a margin of 2 to 1, with some arguing the margin is as high as 100 to 1 in favor of free trade. [2]

Historical American protectionism

Beginning with 1st U. S. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton's "Report on Manufactures", in which he advocated tariffs to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs, the United States was the leading nation opposed to "free trade" theory. Throughout the 19th century, leading statesmen of U. S. including Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton's themes within the Whig Party under the name "American System. "

The opposition Democratic Party contested several elections throughout the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850's in part over the issue of the tariff and protection of industry. The Whigs favored higher protective tariffs which won the elections of 1840 and 1848 respectively. The pre-eminent economist in the United States at this time Henry Charles Carey became the leading proponent of the "American System" of economics; it had developed in opposition to the 'free trade' system which Carey called the "British System" as was proposed by Adam Smith and advocated by the British Empire. Henry Charles Carey ( December 15, 1793 - October 13, 1879) a leading 19th century Economist of the American School His book "Harmony of Interests" together with German-American economist Friedrich List in his scholarly work became widely read and disseminated in America and Germany leading the German Historic School economists to embrace a similar anti-free trade approach which was embraced by Chancellor Bismarck in the late 1800s. Friedrich List ( August 6, 1789 – November 30, 1846) was a leading 19th Century German and American Economist who developed

The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade and when formed the party implemented a 44 percent tariff during the Civil War in part to pay for the building of the Union-Pacific Railroad, the war effort, and to protect American industry. [3] President William McKinley stated the United States' stance under the Republican Party (who had won every election for President except the two non-consecutive terms of Grover Cleveland until 1912 maintaining Lincoln's economic principles) as thus:

"Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave. Protection is but the law of nature, the law of self-preservation, of self-development, of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man. [It is said] that protection is immoral…. Why, if protection builds up and elevates 63,000,000 [the U. S. population] of people, the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world. We cannot take a step in the pathway of progress without benefitting mankind everywhere. Well, they say, ‘Buy where you can buy the cheapest'…. Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: ‘Buy where you can pay the easiest. ' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards. "[4]

The tariff and support of protection to support the growth of infrastructure and industrialization of the nation became a leading tenet of the Republican Party thereafter until the Eisenhower administration and the onset of the Cold War.

In the 1930s, the US adopted the protectionist Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act which raised rates to all-time highs beyond the Lincoln levels, which some economists believe exacerbated the Great Depression. The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (sometimes known as the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act) was an act signed into law on June 17 1930, that raised U In response the Democratic Party under Franklin D. Roosevelt resorted to Hamilton's earlier formula of Reciprocity with moderate tariffs coupled with subsidy to industry which went unbroken until the 1970s when the Free Trade era began for the United States after the Kennedy Round of trade talks in the late sixties were complete.

De facto protectionism

In the modern trade arena many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist. For example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati, see developed countries' efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism. Jagdish Natwarlal Bhagwati (born July 26, 1934) is a economist known for his advocacy of Free trade. Also, the imposition of restrictive certification procedures on imports are seen in this light.

Protectionists fault the free trade model as being reverse protectionism in disguise, that of using tax policy to protect foreign manufacturers from domestic competition. By ruling out revenue tariffs on foreign products, government must fully rely on domestic taxation to provide its revenue, which falls heavily disproportionately on domestic manufacturing. As Paul Craig Roberts notes: "[Foreign discrimination of US products] is reinforced by the US tax system, which imposes no appreciable tax burden on foreign goods and services sold in the US but imposes a heavy tax burden on US producers of goods and services regardless of whether they are sold within the US or exported to other countries. Paul Craig Roberts (born April 3, 1939, in Atlanta Georgia) is an Economist and a nationally syndicated columnist for Creators Syndicate "*[2]

Further, others point out that free trade agreements often have protectionist provisions such as intellectual property, copyright, and patent restrictions that benefit large corporations. Copyright is a legal concept enacted by Governments, giving the creator of an original work of authorship Exclusive rights to control its distribution usually for These provisions restrict trade in music, movies, drugs, software, and other manufactured items to high cost producers with quotas from low cost producers set to zero. [3] [4]

Other types of protectionism include administrative barriers, import licensing, and even rationing.

Current world trends

It is the stated policy of most First World countries to eliminate protectionism through free trade policies enforced by international treaties and organizations such as the World Trade Organization. The term " first world " refers to countries that are capitalist, which are technologically advanced and whose Despite this, many of these countries still place protective and/or revenue tariffs on foreign products to protect some favored or politically influential industries. This creates an artificially profitable industry that discourages foreign innovation from taking place.

Protectionist quotas can cause foreign producers to become more profitable, mitigating their desired effect. This happens because quotas artificially restrict supply, so it is unable to meet demand; as a result the foreign producer can command a premium price for its products. These increased profits are known as quota rents.

For example, in the United States (1981–1994), Japanese automobile companies were held to voluntary export quotas. A voluntary export restraint (VER is a restriction set by a government on the quantity of goods that can be Exported out of a country during a specified period of time These quotas limited the supply of Japanese automobiles desired by consumers in the United States (1. 68 million, raised to 1. 85 million in 1984, and raised again to 2. 30 million in 1985), increasing the profit margin on each automobile more than enough (14% or about $1200 in 1983 dollars, about $2300 in 2005 dollars) to cover the reduction in the number of automobiles that they sold, leading to greater overall profits for Japanese automobile manufacturers in the United States export market, and higher prices for consumers. (Berry et al. 1999).

Criticism

Protectionism is frequently criticised as harming the people it is meant to help, instead of aiding them; these critics often support free trade. Free trade is a system in which the trade of goods and services between or within countries flows unhindered by government-imposed restrictions Some have denounced critics of protectionism as ideologues whose opinions are shaped more by ideology than facts. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics However, nearly all economists are supporters of free trade[5]. An economist is an expert in the Social science of Economics. Economic theory, under the principle of comparative advantage, shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses; as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. In international trade the principle of comparative advantage refers to the fact that although one country may have an absolute disadvantage with another value can be created for both [6] Protectionism results in deadweight loss; this loss to overall welfare gives no-one any benefit, unlike in a free market, where there is no such total loss. It is estimated by Stephen P Magree that the benefits of total free trade outweight the loses by 100 to one.

Some economists, such as Milton Friedman, Ludwig von Mises, David Ricardo and even Paul Krugman, argue that free trade helps third world workers, even though they are not subject to the stringent health and labour standards of developed countries. Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (ˈluːtvɪç fɔn ˈmiːzəs ( September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was an Austrian David Ricardo (18 April 1772 &ndash 11 September 1823 was an English political economist, often credited with systematizing economics and was one of the most influential Paul Robin Krugman ( born February 28 1953 is an American Economist, Columnist, Author, and Intellectual. This is because "the growth of manufacturing — and of the penumbra of other jobs that the new export sector creates — has a ripple effect throughout the economy" that creates competition among producers, lifting wages and living conditions. [7] It has even been suggested that those who support protectionism ostensibly to further the interests of third world workers are being disingenuous, seeking only to protect jobs in developed countries. [8]

Additionally, workers in the third world only accept jobs if they are the best on offer, as all mutually consentual exchanges benefit both sides. That they accept low-paying jobs from western companies shows that the jobs they would have had otherwise are even worse.

Alan Greenspan, former chair of the American Federal Reserve, has criticised protectionist proposals as leading "to an atrophy of our competitive ability. Alan Greenspan (born March 6 1926 in New York City) is an American Economist and was from 1987 to 2006 the Chairman of the Federal Reserve of . . . If the protectionist route is followed, newer, more efficient industries will have less scope to expand, and overall output and economic welfare will suffer. "[9]

Protectionism has also been accused of being one of the major causes of war. Proponents of this theory point to the constant warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries among European countries whose governments were predominantly mercantalist and protectionist, the American Revolution, which came about primarily due to British tariffs and taxes, as well as the protective policies preceding World War 1 and 2. According to Frederic Bastiat, "When goods cannot cross borders, armies will. Claude Frédéric Bastiat ( June 30, 1801 December 24, 1850) was a French classical liberal theorist political economist "

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Free to Choose, Milton Friedman
  2. ^ http://infotech.indiatimes.com/articleshow/569739.cms
  3. ^ [1] Lind, Michael. See also American System (economic plan. The American School, also known as " National System " represents three different yet Henry Charles Carey ( December 15, 1793 - October 13, 1879) a leading 19th century Economist of the American School Economic nationalism is a term used to describe policies which are guided by the idea of protecting domestic consumption labor and capital formation even if this requires the imposition In Economics, rent seeking occurs when an individual organization or firm seeks to make money by manipulating the economic and/or legal environment rather than by trade and Lobbying includes all attempts to influence Legislators and officials whether by other legislators constituents or organized groups Free trade is one of the most debated topics in economics of the 20th and 21st century. A voluntary export restraint (VER is a restriction set by a government on the quantity of goods that can be Exported out of a country during a specified period of time Friedrich List ( August 6, 1789 – November 30, 1846) was a leading 19th Century German and American Economist who developed " Trickle-down economics " and " trickle-down theory," is the economic-political argument that the increases in the earnings of the rich are good for the poor New America Foundation.
  4. ^ William McKinley speech, Oct. 4, 1892 in Boston, MA William McKinley Papers (Library of Congress)
  5. ^ Free to Choose, Milton Friedman
  6. ^ Krugman, Paul (Jan. 24, 1997). The Accidental Theorist. Slate.
  7. ^ Krugman, Paul (Mar. 21, 1997). In Praise of Cheap Labor. Slate.
  8. ^ Krugman, Paul (Nov. 21, 1997). A Raspberry for Free Trade. Slate.
  9. ^ Sicilia, David B. & Cruikshank, Jeffrey L. (2000). The Greenspan Effect, p. 131. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-134919-7.

Other references

External links

Dictionary

protectionism

-noun

  1. A policy of protecting the domestic producers of a product by imposing tariffs, quotas or other barriers on imports.
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