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The cerebellum is largely responsible for coordinating the unconscious aspects of proprioception.
The cerebellum is largely responsible for coordinating the unconscious aspects of proprioception. The cerebellum ( Latin: "little brain" is a region of the Brain that plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception

Proprioception (pronounced /ˌproʊpriːəˈsɛpʃən/ PRO-pree-o-SEP-shun); from Latin proprius, meaning "one's own" and perception) is the sense of the relative position of neighbouring parts of the body. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields Unlike the six exteroceptive senses (sight, taste, smell, touch, hearing, and balance) by which we perceive the outside world, and interoceptive senses, by which we perceive the pain and the stretching of internal organs, proprioception is a third distinct sensory modality that provides feedback solely on the status of the body internally. Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields Taste (or more formally gustation) is a form of direct Chemoreception and is one of the traditional five Senses Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. Equilibrioception or sense of balance is one of the physiological Senses It helps prevent Humans and Animals from falling over when Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields It is the sense that indicates whether the body is moving with required effort, as well as where the various parts of the body are located in relation to each other.

Contents

Conscious and unconscious proprioception

In humans, a distinction is made between conscious proprioception and unconscious proprioception:

Tests for proprioception

In domestic animals, there are a number of relatively specific tests of the subjects ability to propriorecept, these are used in the diagnosis of neurological disorders. These tests include the visual and tactile placing reflexes[3]. There are two frequently used placing reflexes They are tests which allow clinicians to assess the proprioceptive abilities of small domestic animals (cats and dogs in particular

History of study

The position-movement sensation was originally described in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger as a 'sense of locomotion'. Julius Caesar Scaliger or Giulio Cesare della Scala ( April 23, 1484 &ndash October 21, 1558) was an Italian scholar and physician Much later in 1826 Charles Bell expounded the idea of a 'muscle sense' and this is credited with being one of the first physiologic feedback mechanisms. Sir Charles Bell (November 1774 in Doun in Monteath Edinburgh - April 28, 1842, in North Hallow Worcestershire) was a Scottish Bell's idea was that commands were being carried from the brain to the muscles, and that reports on the muscle's condition would be sent in the reverse direction. Later, in 1880, Henry Charlton Bastian suggested 'kinaesthesia' instead of 'muscle sense' on the basis that some of the afferent information (back to the brain) was coming from other structures including tendons, joints, skin, and muscle. Henry Charlton Bastian ( April 26, 1837 in Truro, Cornwall, England – November 17, 1915 in Chesham Bois In 1889, Alfred Goldscheider suggested a classification of kinaesthesia into 3 types: muscle, tendon, and articular sensitivity. Alfred Goldscheider ( August 4, 1858 - April 10, 1935) was a German Neurologist who was born in Sommerfeld.

In 1906, Charles Scott Sherrington published a landmark work which introduced the terms 'proprioception', 'interoception', and 'exteroception'. Sir Charles Scott Sherrington OM, GBE, PRS ( November 27, 1857 - March 4, 1952) was an English neurophysiologist The 'exteroceptors' were the organs responsible for information from outside the body such as the eyes, ears, mouth, and skin. The interoceptors then gave information about the internal organs, while 'proprioception' was awareness of movement derived from muscular, tendon, and articular sources. Such a system of classification has kept physiologists and anatomists searching for specialised nerve endings which transmit data on joint capsule and muscle tension (such as muscle spindles and Pacini corpuscles).

Proprioception vs. kinesthesia

Kinesthesia is another term that is often used interchangeably with proprioception, though use of the term "kinesthesia" can place a greater emphasis on motion. [4][5]

Some differentiate the kinesthetic sense from proprioception by excluding the sense of equilibrium or balance from kinesthesia. An inner ear infection, for example, might degrade the sense of balance. The ear is the sense organ that detects Sounds The Vertebrate ear shows a common biology from Fish to Humans with variations This would degrade the proprioceptive sense, but not the kinesthetic sense. The infected person would be able to walk, but only by using the sense of sight to maintain balance; the person would be unable to walk with eyes closed.

Proprioception and kinaesthesia are seen as interrelated and there is considerable disagreement regarding the definition of these terms. Some of this difficulty stems from Sherrington's original description of joint position sense (or the ability to determine where a particular body part exactly is in space) and kinaesthesia (or the sensation that the body part has moved) under a more general heading of proprioception. Clinical aspects of proprioception are measured in tests that measure a subject's ability to detect an externally imposed passive movement, or the ability to reposition a joint to a predetermined position. Often it is assumed that the ability of one of these aspects will be related to another; unfortunately, experimental evidence suggests there is no strong relation between these two aspects. This suggests that, while these components may well be related in a cognitive manner, they seem to be separate physiologically.

Much of the foregoing work is dependent on the notion that proprioception is essentially a feedback mechanism; that is, the body moves (or is moved) and then the information about this is returned to the brain, whereby subsequent adjustments could be made. More recent work into the mechanism of ankle sprains suggests that the role of reflexes may be more limited due to their long latencies (even at the spinal cord level) as ankle sprain events occur in perhaps 100msec or less. Accordingly, a model has been proposed to include a 'feedforward' component of proprioception where the subject will also have central information about the body's position prior to attaining it.

Kinesthesia is a key component in muscle memory and hand-eye coordination, and training can improve this sense (see blind contour drawing). Muscle memory is a common term for Neuromuscular facilitation which is the process of the neuromuscular system memorizing Motor skills Overview Eye–hand (alternatively hand–eye) coordination refers to the control of eye movement and the processing of visual input to guide bodily movement Blind contour drawing is a method of Drawing, popularized in part by Kimon Nicolaïdes in his book The Natural Way to Draw (1941 which presents itself The ability to swing a golf club or to catch a ball requires a finely-tuned sense of the position of the joints. This sense needs to become automatic through training to enable a person to concentrate on other aspects of performance, such as maintaining motivation or seeing where other people are.

Basis of proprioceptive sense

The inititation of proprioception is the activation of a proprioreceptor in the periphery[6] The proprioceptive sense is believed to be composed of information from sensory neurons located in the inner ear (motion and orientation) and in the stretch receptors located in the muscles and the joint-supporting ligaments (stance). Information as a concept has a diversity of meanings from everyday usage to technical settings Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information For more uses of the word labyrinth, see Labyrinth (disambiguation The labyrinth is a System of fluid passages in the Muscle spindles are Sensory receptors within the belly of a Muscle, which primarily detect changes in the length of this muscle There are specific nerve receptors for this form of perception termed "proprioreceptors", just as there are specific receptors for pressure, light, temperature, sound, and other sensory experiences. Proprioreceptors are sometimes known as adequate stimuli receptors. The adequate stimulus is a property of a Sensory receptor that determines the type of energy to which a sensory receptor responds to with the initiation of Sensory transduction

Although it was known that finger kinesthesia relies on skin sensation, recent research has found that kinesthesia-based haptic perception strongly relies on the forces experienced during touch. [7] This research allows the creation of "virtual", illusory haptic shapes with different perceived qualities. [8]

Applications

Law enforcement

Proprioception is tested by American police officers using the field sobriety test where the subject is required to touch his or her nose with eyes closed. Drunk driving is the act of operating and/or driving a Motor vehicle while under the influence of alcohol and/or Drugs to the degree that mental and People with normal proprioception may make an error of no more than 20 millimetres. The Millimetre ( American spelling: millimeter, symbol mm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to People suffering from impaired proprioception (a symptom of moderate to severe alcohol intoxication) fail this test due to difficulty locating their limbs in space relative to their noses. The short-term effects of alcohol on the human body can take several forms

Learning

Proprioception is what allows someone to learn to walk in complete darkness without losing balance. During the learning of any new skill, sport, or art, it is usually necessary to become familiar with some proprioceptive tasks specific to that activity. Without the appropriate integration of proprioceptive input, an artist would not be able to brush paint onto a canvas without looking at the hand as it moved the brush over the canvas; it would be impossible to drive an automobile because a motorist would not be able to steer or use the foot pedals while looking at the road ahead; a person could not touch type or perform ballet; and people would not even be able to walk without watching where they put their feet. Paint is any Liquid, liquifiable or mastic composition which after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an opaque Solid Touch typing is Typing without using the sense of sight to find the keys

Oliver Sacks once reported the case of a young woman who lost her proprioception due to a viral infection of her spinal cord. Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE (born July 9, 1933, London is a British Neurologist residing in the United States who has written popular books about The spinal cord is a long thin tubular bundle of Nerves that is an extension of the Central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected [9] At first she was not able to move properly at all or even control her tone of voice (as voice modulation is primarily proprioceptive). Later she relearned by using her sight (watching her feet) and vestibulum (or inner ear) only for movement while using hearing to judge voice modulation. "Vestibulum" and "vestibule" redirect here For other uses see Vestibule (disambiguation. The inner Ear is the bony labyrinth, a system of passages comprising two main functional parts the organ of hearing or Cochlea She eventually acquired a stiff and slow movement and nearly normal speech, which is believed to be the best possible in the absence of this sense. She could not judge effort involved in picking up objects and would grip them painfully to be sure she didn't drop them.

Training

The proprioceptive sense can be sharpened through study of many disciplines. The Alexander Technique uses the study of movement to enhance kinesthetic judgment of effort and location. The Alexander Technique is a discipline with a focus on the self-perception of movement and is aimed at alleviating pain promoting rehabilitation improving breathing and decreasing Juggling trains reaction time, spatial location, and efficient movement. Juggling is a physical human skill involving the movement of objects usually through the air for entertainment (see Object manipulation) Standing on a wobble board or balance board is often used to retrain or increase proprioception abilities, particularly as physical therapy for ankle or knee injuries. A balance board is a device used for Recreation, athletic training, Brain development, therapy, musical training and other Standing on one leg (stork standing) and various other body-position challenges are also used in such disciplines as Yoga or Wing Chun. Yoga ( Sanskrit: योग, IAST: yóga, joːgə refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India, to the Wing Chun ( occasionally romanized as Ving Tsun or " Wing Tsun " (literally " spring chant " or "forever In addition, the slow, focused movements of Tai Chi practice provide an environment whereby the proprioceptive information being fed back to the brain stimulates an intense, dynamic "listening environment" to further enhance mind / body integration. Tai chi chuan (is an internal Chinese martial art often practiced for Health reasons Several studies have shown that the efficacy of these types of training is challenged by closing the eyes, because the eyes give invaluable feedback to establishing the moment-to-moment information of balance. There are even specific devices designed for proprioception training, such as the Proprioceptor system, which consists of shoes with specially designed balls on the soles to make athletes work harder to balance. [10]

Impairment

Apparently, temporary loss or impairment of proprioception may happen periodically during growth, mostly during adolescence. Growth that might also influence this would be large increases or drops in bodyweight/size due to fluctuations of fat (liposuction, rapid fat loss, rapid fat gain) and muscle content (bodybuilding, anabolic steroids, catabolisis/starvation). Liposuction, also known as lipoplasty ("fat modeling" liposculpture or suction lipectomy ("suction-assisted fat removal" is Bodybuilding is the process of maximizing Muscle hypertrophy. Anabolic steroids, or anabolic-androgenic steroids ( AAS) are a class of Steroid hormones related to the hormone Testosterone. For the related metabolic process see Anabolism. Catabolism is the set of Metabolic pathways which break down molecules into Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of It can also occur to those who gain new levels of flexibility, stretching, and contortion. Flexibility is the absolute range of movement in a joint or series of joints and muscles that is attainable in a momentary effort with the help of a partner or a piece of equipment The term can also refer to the stretching of Canvas on a frame. Contortion (sometimes contortionism) is an unusual form of physical display which involves the dramatic bending and flexing of the Human body. A limb's being in a new range of motion never experienced (or at least, not for a long time since youth perhaps) can disrupt one's sense of location of that limb. Possible experiences include these: suddenly feeling that feet or legs are missing from one's mental self-image; needing to look down at one's limbs to be sure they are still there; and falling down while walking, especially when attention is focused upon something other than the act of walking.

Proprioception is occasionally impaired spontaneously, especially when one is tired. One's body may appear too large or too small, or parts of the body may appear distorted in size. Similar effects can sometimes occur during epilepsy or migraine auras. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Migraine is a neurological Syndrome characterized by altered bodily experiences painful headaches and nausea WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Auras is a town and a Nagar panchayat in Unnao district in the state of Uttar Pradesh These effects are presumed to arise from abnormal stimulation of the part of the parietal cortex of the brain involved with integrating information from different parts of the body. The parietal lobe is a lobe in the Brain. It is positioned above (superior to the Occipital lobe and behind (posterior to the Frontal lobe. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain [11]

Proprioceptive illusions can also be induced, such as the Pinocchio illusion. The Pinocchio illusion is an Illusion that ones Nose is growing longer as happened to the literary character Pinocchio when he told a lie

The proprioceptive sense is often unnoticed because humans will adapt to a continuously-present stimulus; this is called habituation, desensitization, or adaptation. See also Habit (psychology In Psychology, habituation is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in behavioral An adaptation is a characteristic of an Organism that has been favored by Natural selection and The effect is that proprioceptive sensory impressions disappear, just as a scent can disappear over time. One practical advantage of this is that unnoticed actions or sensation continue in the background while an individual's attention can move to another concern. The Alexander Technique addresses these issues.

People who have a limb amputated may still have a confused sense of that limb existence on their body, known as phantom limb syndrome. Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or Surgery. A phantom limb is the sensation that an amputated or missing limb (even an organ like the appendix is still attached to the body and is moving appropriately Phantom sensations can occur as passive proprioceptive sensations of the limb's presence, or more active sensations such as perceived movement, pressure, pain, itching, or temperature. The etiology of the phantom limb phenomenon was disputed in 2006, but some consensus existed in favour of neurological (e. g. neural signal bleed across a preexisting sensory map, as posited by V.S. Ramachandran) over psychological explanations. The concept of a homunculus ( Latin for "little man" plural "homunculi" the diminutive of homo, "man" is often used to illustrate Vilayanur S "Rama" Ramachandran is a neurologist best known for his work in the fields of Behavioral neurology and Psychophysics. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, such as after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain), or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome). The phantom eye syndrome is a Phantom pain in the eye and visual Hallucinations, after the removal of an eye ( Enucleation, Evisceration)

Temporary impairment of proprioception has also been known to occur from an overdose of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine and pyridoxamine). Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble Vitamin. Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP is the active form and is a cofactor in many reactions of Amino acid metabolism including Most of the impaired function returns to normal shortly after the intake of vitamins returns to normal. Impairment can also be caused by cytotoxic factors such as chemotherapy. Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells Examples of toxic agents are a Chemical substance, an Immune cell or some types of Venom Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer.

It has been proposed that even common tinnitus and the attendant hearing frequency-gaps masked by the perceived sounds may cause erroneous proprioceptive information to the balance and comprehension centers of the brain, precipitating mild confusion. Tinnitus (tɪˈnaɪtəs or /ˈtɪnɪtəs/ from the Latin word for " Ringing " is the perception of sound within the human ear in the absence of corresponding

Proprioception is permanently impaired in patients who suffer from joint hypermobility or Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (a genetic condition that results in weak connective tissue throughout the body). Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is a group of rare Genetic disorders affecting humans caused by a defect in Collagen synthesis It can also be permanently impaired from viral infections as reported by Sacks. The catastrophic effect of major proprioceptive loss is reviewed by Robles-De-La-Torre (2006). [12]

References

  1. ^ Fix, James D. (2002). Neuroanatomy. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 127. ISBN 0-7817-2829-0.  
  2. ^ Chapter 7A: Somatosensory Systems. Retrieved on 2008-04-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama
  3. ^ Introduction to Neurology, 2nd Edition 1976, A. C. Palmer, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford
  4. ^ eMedicine/Stedman Medical Dictionary Lookup! - "kinesthesia". Retrieved on 2008-04-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama
  5. ^ eMedicine/Stedman Medical Dictionary Lookup! - "proprioception". Retrieved on 2008-04-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama
  6. ^ Sherrington C. S. , Brain 29:467-485,1907 http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/29/4/467
  7. ^ Robles-De-La-Torre G, Hayward V (2001). "Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch". Nature 412 (6845): 445-8. doi:10.1038/35086588. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 11473320.  
  8. ^ the MIT Technology Review article "The Cutting Edge of Haptics"
  9. ^ Sacks, O. The Disembodied Lady, in The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and his autobiographical case study A Leg To Stand On. The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales is a 1985 book by neurologist Oliver Sacks describing the case histories of some of his patients
  10. ^ The Proprioceptor System
  11. ^ Ehrsson H, Kito T, Sadato N, Passingham R, Naito E (2005). "Neural substrate of body size: illusory feeling of shrinking of the waist". PLoS Biol. 3 (12): e412. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030412. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16336049.  
  12. ^ Robles-De-La-Torre G. The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments. IEEE Multimedia 13(3), Special issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp. 24–30 (2006).

See also

External links

Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH) is a huge Controlled vocabulary (or metadata system for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books

Dictionary

proprioception

-noun

  1. the sense of the position of parts of the body, relative to other neighbouring parts of the body.
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