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Procellariiformes
Fossil range: Middle Eocene – Recent
Cape Petrel Daption capense
Cape Petrel Daption capense
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Procellariiformes
Fürbringer, 1888
Families

Procellariidae
Diomedeidae
Hydrobatidae
Pelecanoididae

Procellariiformes is an order of seabirds that is comprised of four families, the albatrosses, procellariids, storm-petrels and diving petrels. The Eocene epoch (558 ± 02 - 339 ± 01 Ma) is a major division of the Geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in The Cape Petrel, Daption capense, is a common Seabird of the Southern Ocean from the family Procellariidae. Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Max Fürbringer ( January 30, 1846 – March 6, 1920) was a German anatomist. In Biological classification, family ( Latin The family Procellariidae is a group of Seabirds that comprises the Fulmarine petrels the Gadfly petrels the prions, and the Shearwaters Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large Seabirds allied to the procellariids, Storm-petrels and Diving-petrels The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. The diving-petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes Seabirds are Birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment In Biological classification, family ( Latin Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large Seabirds allied to the procellariids, Storm-petrels and Diving-petrels The family Procellariidae is a group of Seabirds that comprises the Fulmarine petrels the Gadfly petrels the prions, and the Shearwaters The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. The diving-petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes Formerly called Tubinares and still called tubenoses in English, they are often referred to collectively as the petrels, a term that has been applied to all Procellariiformes[1] or more commonly all the families except the albatrosses. This article is about the petrel seabirds For other uses see Petrel (disambiguation. [2] They are almost exclusively pelagic (feeding in the open ocean). Any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom is in the pelagic zone. They have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world's oceans, with the highest diversity being around New Zealand. In Biogeography, a Biological category of living things is said to have cosmopolitan distribution if this category can be found almost anywhere around the world New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island

Procellariiformes are colonial, mostly nesting on remote predator-free islands. A seabird colony is a site which Seabirds visit to breed typically during the summer The larger species nest on the surface, while most smaller species nest in natural cavities and burrows. They exibit strong philopatry, returning to their natal colony to breed and returning to the same nesting site over many years. In Animal Behaviour philopatry is the tendency of a migrating animal to return to a specific location in order to breed or feed Procellariiformes are monogamous and form long term pair bonds which are formed over several years and may last for the life of the pair. Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate in a Relationship, thus forming a Couple. Only a single egg is laid per nesting attempt, and usually only a single nesting attempt is made per year, although in the larger albatrosses may only nest once every two years. In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. Both parents participate in incubation and chick rearing. Incubation is the process by which Birds hatch their eggs, and to the development of the Embryo within the egg Incubation times are long compared to other birds, as are fledgling periods. Once a chick has fledged there is no further parental care.

Procellariiformes have had a long relationship with humans. They have been important food sources for many people, and continue to be hunted as such in some parts of the world. They have also been the subject of numerous cultural depictions, particularly albatrosses. Procellariiformes are one of the most endangered bird taxa, with many species threatened with extinction due to introduced predators in their breeding colonies, marine pollution and the danger of fisheries by-catch. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. An introduced species (also known as naturalized species or exotic species) is an Organism that is not indigenous to a given location but Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Scientists, conservationists, fishermen and governments around the world are working to reduce the threats posed to them, and these efforts have led to the signing of the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, a legally binding international treaty signed in 2001. The Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP is a legally binding international treaty signed in 2001

Contents

Biology

Distribution and movements

The Procellariiformes have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world's oceans and seas, although at the levels of family and genus there are some clear patterns. In Biogeography, a Biological category of living things is said to have cosmopolitan distribution if this category can be found almost anywhere around the world The most cosmopolitan family is the Procellariidae, although within that family there are some gaps in distribution. The family Procellariidae is a group of Seabirds that comprises the Fulmarine petrels the Gadfly petrels the prions, and the Shearwaters The gadfly petrels, Pterodroma, have a generally tropical and temperate distribution, whereas the fulmarine petrels are mostly polar with some temperate species. The gadfly petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes. The fulmarine petrels or fulmar-petrels are a distinct group of Petrels within the procellariid family. The majority of the fulmarine petrels, along with the prions, are confined to the southern hemisphere. The prions are small Petrels in the Genus Pachyptila. Together with the Blue Petrel, they form one of the four groups within the Procellariidae The shearwaters have the most widespread distribution, although they are absent from the Pacific north of Japan as breeding birds. Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged Seabirds There are more than 20 Species of shearwaters a few larger ones in the genus Calonectris

The storm-petrels are almost as widespread as the procellariids, and fall into two distinct subfamilies; the Oceanitinae have a mostly southern hemisphere distribution and the Hydrobatinae are found mostly in the northern hemisphere. The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. Oceanitinae is one of two subfamilies of Storm-petrels Because the distribution of the subfamily is predominantly in the southern hemisphere they are sometimes known as Hydrobatinae is one of two subfamilies of Storm-petrels The distribution of the subfamily is predominantly in the northern hemisphere Amongst the albatrosses the majority of the family is restricted to the southern hemisphere, feeding and nesting in cool temperate areas, although one genus, Phoebastria, ranges across the north Pacific. Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large Seabirds allied to the procellariids, Storm-petrels and Diving-petrels The North Pacific albatrosses are large Seabirds from the Genus Phoebastria in the Albatross family. The family is absent from the north Atlantic, although fossil records indicate they bred there once. [3] Finally the diving-petrels are restricted to the southern hemisphere. The diving-petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes

The various species within the order have a variety of migration strategies. Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability Some species undertake regular trans-equatorial migrations, such as the Sooty Shearwater which annually migrates from its breeding grounds in New Zealand and Chile to the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of 64,000 km (40,000 miless), the longest measured annual migration of any bird . The Sooty Shearwater ( Puffinus griseus) is a medium-large Shearwater in the Seabird family Procellariidae. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States [4] A number of otherpetrel species undertake trans-equatorial migrations, including the Wilson's Storm-petrel and the Providence Petrel, but no albatrosses cross do due to their reliance on wind assisted flight. The Wilson's Storm-petrel ( Oceanites oceanicus) also known as Wilson's Petrel, is a small Seabird of the Storm-petrel family Hydrobatidae The Providence Petrel ( Pterodroma solandri) is a species that burrows in one location isolated Lord Howe Island, some 800km from the Australian mainland Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large Seabirds allied to the procellariids, Storm-petrels and Diving-petrels There are other long-distant migrants within the order; Swinhoe's Storm-petrels breed in the western Pacific and migrates to the western Indian Ocean,[5] and Bonin Petrels nesting in Hawaii migrate to the coast of Japan during the non-breeding season. Swinhoe's Storm-petrel, Oceanodroma monorhis also known as Swinhoe's Petrel is a small Seabird of the Storm-petrel family Hydrobatidae The Bonin Petrel, Pterodroma hypoleuca, is a Seabird in the family Procellariidae. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the [6]

Morphology and flight

The Southern Royal Albatross is the largest of the Procellariiformes
The Southern Royal Albatross is the largest of the Procellariiformes

Procellariiformes range in size from the very large Southern Royal Albatross (10k) to the tiny Least Storm-petrel (20 g). The Southern Royal Albatross, Diomedea epomophora, is a large Seabird from the Albatross family. The Southern Royal Albatross, Diomedea epomophora, is a large Seabird from the Albatross family. The Least Storm-petrel ( Halocyptena microsoma) is a small Seabird of the Storm-petrel family Hydrobatidae. They have their nostrils enclosed in one or two tubes on their straight, deeply grooved bills with hooked tips. The beaks are made up from several plates. Wings are long and narrow; feet are webbed, and the hind toe is undeveloped or non-existent. Plumage is predominantly black, white and grey.

The order has a characteristic tubular nasal passage which is used for olfaction. Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. [7] This ability to smell helps to locate patchily distributed prey at sea and may also help locate their nests within nesting colonies. A seabird colony is a site which Seabirds visit to breed typically during the summer [8]

The longer-winged species fly using a switchback technique to minimise active flapping. All eat fish, squid or similar marine prey. Squid are marine Cephalopods of the order Teuthida, which comprises around 300 species

Most are unable to walk well on land, and many species visit their remote breeding islands only at night. The exceptions are the huge albatrosses, several of the gadfly petrels and shearwaters and the fulmar-petrels. The latter can disable even large predatory birds with their obnoxious stomach oil, which they can project some distance. Stomach oil is the light Oil composed of neutral dietary Lipids found in the fore-gut or proventriculus of birds in the order Procellariiformes This stomach oil is a digestive residue created in the foregut of all tubenoses except the diving petrels, and is used mainly for storage of energy rich food as well as for defence.

Breeding behaviour

Breeding colonies

Christmas Shearwaters are one of the surface nesting tropical Procellariiformes.
Christmas Shearwaters are one of the surface nesting tropical Procellariiformes. The Christmas Shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, is a medium sized Shearwater of the Tropical Central Pacific.

All Procellariiformes are colonial, predominantly breeding on offshore or oceanic islands. A seabird colony is a site which Seabirds visit to breed typically during the summer The few species that nest on continents do so in inhospitable environments such as dry deserts or on Antarctica. These colonies can vary from the widely spaced colonies of the giant petrels to the dense 3. The giant petrels are two large Seabirds from the Genus Macronectes. 6 million strong colonies of Leach's Storm Petrels. The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. [9] For almost all species the need to breed is the only reason that Procellariiformes return to land at all. Within the colonies pairs defend usually small territories (the giant petrels and some albatrosses can have very large territories) which is either the small area around the nest or a burrow. In Ethology, Sociobiology and Behavioral ecology, the term territory refers to any sociographical area that an Animal of a particular Species Competition between pairs can be intense, as can competition between species, particularly for burrows. Larger species of petrels will even kill the chicks and even adults of smaller species in disputes over burrows. [10] Burrows and natural crevices are most commonly used by the smaller species; all the storm-petrels and diving-petrels are cavity nesters, as are many of the procellariids. The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. The diving-petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes The family Procellariidae is a group of Seabirds that comprises the Fulmarine petrels the Gadfly petrels the prions, and the Shearwaters The fulmarine petrels and some tropical gadfly petrels and shearwaters are surface nesters, as are all the albatrosses. The fulmarine petrels or fulmar-petrels are a distinct group of Petrels within the procellariid family. The gadfly petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes. Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged Seabirds There are more than 20 Species of shearwaters a few larger ones in the genus Calonectris Colonies are often composed of several different species of both petrels and other seabirds.

Procellariiformes show high levels of philopatry, both site fidelity and natal philopatry. In Animal Behaviour philopatry is the tendency of a migrating animal to return to a specific location in order to breed or feed Natal philopatry is the tendency of an individual bird to return to its natal colony to breed, often many years after leaving the colony as a chick. This tendency has been shown through ringing studies and mitochondrial DNA studies. Bird ringing (also known as bird Banding) is an aid to studying wild Birds by attaching a small individually numbered metal or plastic ring to their legs Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. In the ringing studies birds ringed as chicks are recapatured close to their original nests, a tendency which can be extreme at times; in Laysan Albatross the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 metres,[11] and a study of Cory's Shearwaters nesting near Corsica found that of nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony actually bred in the burrow they were raised in. The Laysan Albatross, Phoebastria immutabilis, is a large Seabird that ranges across the North Pacific. The Cory's Shearwater ( Calonectris diomedea) is a large Shearwater in the Seabird family Procellariidae. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily [12] Mitochondrial DNA provides evidence of restricted gene flow between different colonies, strongly suggesting philopatry. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. In Population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of Alleles of Genes from one Population to another [13]

The other type of philopatry exhibited is site fidelity, where pairs of birds return to the same nesting site for a number of years. Among the most extreme examples known of this tendency was the fidelity of a ringed Northern Fulmar which returned to the same site for 25 years. Bird ringing (also known as bird Banding) is an aid to studying wild Birds by attaching a small individually numbered metal or plastic ring to their legs The Northern Fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis) or Arctic Fulmar lives in the north Atlantic and north Pacific. The average number of birds returning to the same nesting sites is high in all species studied, with figures of around 91% for Bulwer's Petrels,[14] and 85% of males and 76% of females for Cory's Shearwaters (after a successful breeding attempt). The Bulwer's Petrel ( Bulweria bulwerii) is a small Petrel in the family Procellariidae, and is one of two Species in the genus The Cory's Shearwater ( Calonectris diomedea) is a large Shearwater in the Seabird family Procellariidae. [15]

Pair bonds and life history

Wandering Albatrosses performing their mating dances on the Kerguelen Islands.
Wandering Albatrosses performing their mating dances on the Kerguelen Islands. The Wandering Albatross ( Diomedea exulans) is a large Seabird from the family Diomedeidae which has a circumpolar range in the Southern The Kerguelen Islands (in French: commonly Îles Kerguelen or Archipel de Kerguelen but officially Archipel des Kerguelen or Archipel

Procellariiformes are monogamous breeders and form long term pair-bonds. Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate in a Relationship, thus forming a Couple. These pair bonds take several years to develop in some species, particularly with the albatrosses. Having formed they will last for many breeding seasons, in some cases for the life of the pair. Petrel courtship can be an elaborate affair. It reaches its extreme with the albatrosses, where pairs of albatrosses spend many years perfecting and elaborate mating dances. [16] These dances are composed of synchronised performances of various actions such as preening, pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (like the sky-call). Personal grooming (also called titivating) is the art of cleaning grooming and maintaining parts of the body [17] Each particular pair will develop their own individual version of the dance. The breeding behaviour of other Procellariiformes are less elaborate, although similar bonding behaviours are involved, particularly for the surface nesting procellariids. These can involve synchronised flights, mutual preening and calling. Bird vocalization includes both Bird calls and bird songs In non-technical use bird songs are the bird sounds that are melodious to the human ear Calls are important for helping birds locate potential mates and distinguish between species and may also serve a function in helping individuals assess the quality of potential mates. [18] After pair formation has occurred calls also serve to help them reunite, the ability of individuals to recognise their own mate has also been demonstrated in several species.

Procellariiformes are k-selected. In Ecology, r/K selection theory relates to the selection of traits which promote success in particular environments Breeding is delayed for several years after fledging, sometimes for as long as eight or ten years in the case of larger species. Fledge is the stage in a young Bird 's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight Once they begin breeding they make only a single breeding attempt per nesting season, even if the egg is lost early on in the season they will seldom relay. Large amounts of effort are placed into laying a single (proportionally) large egg and raising a single chick. In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. Procellariiformes are long-lived, the longest living albatross known survived for 51 years but was probably older,[19] even the tiny storm-petrels are known to have survived for 30 years. [20]

Nesting and chick rearing

A semi-precocial Wedge-tailed Shearwater chick with guarding parent.
A semi-precocial Wedge-tailed Shearwater chick with guarding parent. The Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Puffinus pacificus is a medium-large Shearwater in the Seabird family Procellariidae.

The majority of Procellariiformes nest once a year and do so seasonally. [21] Some tropical shearwaters, like the Christmas Shearwater, are able to nest on cycles slightly shorter than a year, and the large great albatrosses (genus Diomedea) nest in consecutive years. The Christmas Shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, is a medium sized Shearwater of the Tropical Central Pacific. The great albatrosses are Seabirds in the Genus Diomedea in the Albatross family. The great albatrosses are Seabirds in the Genus Diomedea in the Albatross family. Most temperate and polar species nest over the spring-summer, although some albatrosses and procellariids nest over the winter. Spring is one of the four Temperate Seasons Spring marks the transition from Winter into Summer. Summer is one of the four Temperate Seasons Summer marks the warmest time of year with the longest days Winter is one of the four Seasons of Temperate zones Calculated astronomically, it begins on the Solstice and ends on the Equinox In the tropics some species breed throughout the year, but most nest in discreet periods. Procellariiformes return to the nesting colonies several months before laying, and attend their nesting sites regularly before copulation. Prior to laying females embark on a pre-laying exodus to build up reserves of energy to lay the comparably large egg.

When the female returns and lays the male takes the first incubation stint and the female returns to sea. Incubation is the process by which Birds hatch their eggs, and to the development of the Embryo within the egg Incubation is shared between both sexes. The duration of individual stints varies from just a few days to several weeks, during which the incubating bird can lose a considerable amount of weight. [22] The incubation period varies from species to species, around 40 days for the smallest storm-petrels but longer for the largest species; for albatrosses it can be as long as 70 to 80 days, which is the longest incubation period of any bird. [23]

Upon hatching the chicks are semi-precocial, having open eyes, a dense covering of white or grey down feathers, and the ability to move around the nesting site. In Biology, the term precocial refers to species in which the young are relatively mature and mobile from the moment of birth or hatching For the record label see Duck Down Records The down of Birds is a layer of fine Feathers found under the tougher exterior feathers After hatching the incubating adult remains with the chick for a number of days, a period known as the guard phase. In the case of most burrow-nesting species this is only until the chick is able to thermoregulate, usually two or three days. Thermoregulation is the ability of an Organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries even when temperature surrounding is very different Diving-petrel chicks take longer to thermoregulate and have a longer guard phase than other burrow nesters. However for surface nesting species, which have to deal with a greater range of weather and also have to content with predators like skuas and frigatebirds, and consequently have longer guard phases, as long as two weeks in procellariids and three weeks in albatrosses. Skuas are Seabirds in the family Stercorariidae. The three smaller skuas are called jaegers in North America The frigatebirds are a family Fregatidae, of Seabirds There are five Species in the single Genus Fregata. [24]

A Laysan Albatross feeds its chick. The parent pumps food from a modified foregut, the proventriculus, and the chick catches the meal in its lower mandible.
A Laysan Albatross feeds its chick. The Laysan Albatross, Phoebastria immutabilis, is a large Seabird that ranges across the North Pacific. The parent pumps food from a modified foregut, the proventriculus, and the chick catches the meal in its lower mandible.

The chick is fed by both parents. Chicks are fed on fish, squid, krill and stomach oil. Stomach oil is the light Oil composed of neutral dietary Lipids found in the fore-gut or proventriculus of birds in the order Procellariiformes Stomach oil is oil composed of neutral dietary lipids that are the residue created by digestion of the prey items. An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed As an energy source for chicks it has several advantages over undigested prey, its calorific value is around 9. This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy. 6 kcal per gram, which is only slightly lower than the value for diesel oil. This article is about the unit of energy For its use in Nutrition and Food labelling regulations, see the article on Food energy. Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum [25] This can be a real advantage for species that range over huge distances to provide food for hungry chicks. [26] The oil is also used in defence. All Procellariiformes create stomach oil except the diving-petrels. The diving-petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes

The durations between feedings vary between species and during the stages of development. Small feeds are frequent during the guard phase, but afterwards become less frequent.

Relationship with humans

Role in culture

The most important family in terms of cultural importance is the albatrosses, which have been described by one author as "the most legendary of birds". [27] Albatrosses have featured in poetry in the form of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's famous poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which in turn gave rise to the usage of albatross as metaphor for a burden. Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( 21 October 1772 &ndash 25 July 1834) was an English Poet, Critic and philosopher The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (original The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere) is the longest major Poem by the English Poet The word albatross is sometimes used to mean an encumbrance or a wearisome burden [28] There are few instances of petrels in culture, although there are sailors legends regarding the storm-petrels, which are considered to to warn of oncoming storms. This article is about the petrel seabirds For other uses see Petrel (disambiguation. The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. In general petrels were considered to be "soul birds", representing the souls of drowned sailors, and it was considered unlucky to touch them. [29]

Exploitation

Albatrosses and petrels have been important food sources for humans for as long as people have been able to reach their remote breeding colonies. Amongst the earliest known examples of this is the remains of shearwaters and albatrosses along with those of other seabirds in 5,000 year old middens in Chile,[30] although it is likely that they were exploited prior to this. Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged Seabirds There are more than 20 Species of shearwaters a few larger ones in the genus Calonectris A midden, also known as a kitchen midden, or a shell heap, is a dump for domestic waste. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Since then many other marine cultures, both subsistence and industrial, have exploited Procellariiformes, in some cases almost to extinction. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. Some cultures continue to harvest shearwaters (a practice known as muttonbirding); for example the Maori of New Zealand,who use a sustainable traditional method known as kaitiakitanga. Muttonbirding is a seasonal harvesting activity which may be recreational or commercial of the chicks of Petrels especially Shearwater species for food oil and This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Kaitiaki is a New Zealand term used for the Māori concept of Guardianship, for the Sky, the Sea, and the Land.

Threats and conservation

The poorly known New Zealand Storm-petrel was considered extinct for 150 years before being rediscovered in 2003
The poorly known New Zealand Storm-petrel was considered extinct for 150 years before being rediscovered in 2003

The albatrosses and petrels are "amongst the most severely threatened taxa worldwide". The New Zealand Storm-petrel, Oceanites maorianus, is a small Seabird of the Tubenose family [10] They face a variety of threats, the severity of which varies greatly from species to species. Several species are amongst the most common of seabirds, including the Wilson's Storm Petrel (an estimated 20 million individuals) and the Short-tailed Shearwater (an estimated 30 million individuals); while the total population of some other species barely reaches more than two hundred individuals. The Wilson's Storm-petrel ( Oceanites oceanicus) also known as Wilson's Petrel, is a small Seabird of the Storm-petrel family Hydrobatidae The Short-tailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris, or Yolla, more commonly known as the Muttonbird in Australia, is the most There are less than 200 Magenta Petrels breeding on the Chatham Islands, only 400 Zino's Petrels and only 80 Amsterdam Albatrosses. The Magenta Petrel or Chatham Island Taiko ( Pterodroma magentae) is a small Seabird in the Gadfly petrel Genus, The Archipelago of the Chatham Islands ( Rekohu in the Moriori language and Wharekauri in the Māori language) is a territory Zino's Petrel ( Pterodroma madeira) is a small Seabird in the Gadfly petrel Genus. The Amsterdam Albatross ( Diomedea amsterdamensis) is a huge Albatross which breeds only on the Plateau des Tourbières on Amsterdam Island ( French Only one species is thought to have gone extinct since 1600, the Guadalupe Storm-petrel of Mexico, although a number of species went extinct prior to this. The Guadalupe Storm-petrel ( Oceanodroma macrodactyla) is a small Seabird of the storm-petrel family Hydrobatidae. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Numerous species are very poorly known, the Fiji Petrel has only been seen a handful of times since its discovery and the breeding colonies of the New Zealand Storm-petrel, Hornby's Storm-petrel and Heinroth's Shearwater have never been located. The Fiji Petrel, Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi, is a small dark Gadfly petrel. The New Zealand Storm-petrel, Oceanites maorianus, is a small Seabird of the Tubenose family The Hornby's Storm-petrel or Ringed Storm-petrel ( Oceanodroma hornbyi) is a Seabird that ranges in the Humboldt Current off the coasts of Heinroth's Shearwater ( Puffinus heinrothi) is a poorly known Seabird in the family Procellariidae. So little is known about the New Zealand Storm-petrel that is was thought to be extinct for 150 years until its rediscovery in 2003, although this record is dwarfed by that of the Bermuda Petrel which was considered extinct for 330 years. The Bermuda Petrel, Pterodroma cahow, is a gadfly Petrel. Commonly known in Bermuda as the Cahow

Black-browed Albatross hooked on a long-line.
Black-browed Albatross hooked on a long-line. The Black-browed Albatross, Thalassarche melanophrys, is a large Seabird of the Albatross family Diomedeidae.

The principal threat to the albatrosses and larger species of procellariids is long-line fishing. For other meanings of "longline" see Longline. Longline fishing is a commercial Fishing technique that uses hundreds or even Bait set on hooks is attractive to foraging birds and many are hooked by the lines as they are set. As many as 100,000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on tuna lines set out by long-line fisheries. Tuna, are several Species of ocean-dwelling Fish in the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus Thunnus. [31][32] This has led to spectacular declines in some species, as Procellariiformes are slow breeders and cannot replace their numbers fast enough.

Exotic species introduced to the remote breeding colonies is also a threat to all types of Procellariiformes. An introduced species (also known as naturalized species or exotic species) is an Organism that is not indigenous to a given location but A seabird colony is a site which Seabirds visit to breed typically during the summer These principally take the form of predators; most albatross and petrel species are clumsy on land and are unable to defend themselves from mammals such as rats, feral cats and pigs. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Rats are various medium sized long-tailed Rodents of the superfamily Muroidea A feral cat (or stray cat, alley cat) is a Cat which has been separated from Domestication through abandonment loss or running away and becomes Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times This phenomenon, known as ecological naivete, has resulted in numerous declines in many species and has been strongly implicated in the extinction of the Guadalupe Storm-petrel. Island tameness is the tendency of many populations and Species of animals living on isolated Islands to lose their wariness of potential predators, particularly In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. The Guadalupe Storm-petrel ( Oceanodroma macrodactyla) is a small Seabird of the storm-petrel family Hydrobatidae. [33] Introduced herbivores can also cause problems if they unbalance the ecology of the island; introduced rabbits destroyed the forest understory on Cabbage Tree Island off New South Wales; this both increased the vulnerability of the Gould's Petrels nesting on the island to natural predators and left them vulnerable to the sticky fruits of the birdlime tree (Pisonia umbellifera), a native plant. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of UserPolbot. --> Gould's Petrel ( Pterodroma leucoptera) is a species of Seabird in the Procellariidae Pisonia is a genus of plants Some species for example Pisonia brunoniana of New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island In the natural state these fruits lodge in the understory of the forest, but with the understory removed the fruits fall to the ground where the petrels move about, sticking to their feathers and making flight impossible. [34]

This albatross bolus was found in the Hawaiin Islands showing signs of flotsam that was ingested but successfully ejected along with other indigestible matter. If such flotsam cannot be ejected it may cause the condition of the albatross to decline and even cause choking.
This albatross bolus was found in the Hawaiin Islands showing signs of flotsam that was ingested but successfully ejected along with other indigestible matter. If such flotsam cannot be ejected it may cause the condition of the albatross to decline and even cause choking.

In the past exploitation was a threat (see above), although this is less of a threat now. Other threats the ingestion of plastic flotsam. Once swallowed, this plastic can cause a general decline in the fitness of the bird, or in some cases lodge in the gut and cause a blockage, leading to death by starvation. [35] This can also be picked up by foraging adults and fed to chicks, stunting their development and reducing the chances of successfully fledging. [36] Procellariids are also vulnerable to general marine pollution, as well as oil spills. Some species, such as the Barau's Petrel and the Newell's Shearwater, which nest high up on large developed islands are victims of light pollution. The Barau's Petrel, Pterodroma baraui is a medium sized Gadfly petrel from the family Procellariidae. Newell's Shearwater or Hawaiian Shearwater ( Puffinus newelli) is a Seabird belonging to the Genus Puffinus in the Chicks that are fledging are attracted to streetlights and are unable to reach the sea. Fledge is the stage in a young Bird 's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight An estimated 20–40% of fledging Barau's Petrels are attracted to the streetlights on Réunion. Réunion ( French: Réunion or formally La Réunion; previously Île Bourbon) is an island located in the Indian Ocean, east of [37]

Species

There are a total of around 125 species of Procellariiformes world-wide,[2] divided among four families:

The Hydrobatidae's two subfamilies, Oceanitinadae and Hydrobatinae, are probably better treated as distinct families. The family Procellariidae is a group of Seabirds that comprises the Fulmarine petrels the Gadfly petrels the prions, and the Shearwaters Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged Seabirds There are more than 20 Species of shearwaters a few larger ones in the genus Calonectris The fulmarine petrels or fulmar-petrels are a distinct group of Petrels within the procellariid family. The gadfly petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes. The prions are small Petrels in the Genus Pachyptila. Together with the Blue Petrel, they form one of the four groups within the Procellariidae Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large Seabirds allied to the procellariids, Storm-petrels and Diving-petrels Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large Seabirds allied to the procellariids, Storm-petrels and Diving-petrels The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. The storm-petrels are Seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. The diving-petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes The diving-petrels are Seabirds in the Bird order Procellariiformes [38]

Procellariiformes are most closely related to Sphenisciformes (Penguins). Penguins ( order Sphenisciformes, family Spheniscidae) are a group of aquatic, flightless Birds living almost

In the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, the tubenoses are included in a greatly enlarged order Ciconiiformes. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy is a radical bird Taxonomy proposed by Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist. This taxonomic treatment is almost certainly erroneous, but the assumption of a close evolutionary relationship may be correct. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos

At one point (until the beginning of the 20th century), the family Hydrobatidae was named Procellariidae, and the family now called Procellariidae was rendered "Puffinidae. " The order itself was called Tubinares. A major early work on this group is F. DuCane Godman's Monograph of the Petrels, five fascicles, 1907--1910. , with portraits of figures by John Gerrard Keulemans. Johannes Gerardus Keulemans (J G Keulemans ( June 8, 1842, Rotterdam - March 29, 1912, Ilford, Essex (now

References

  1. ^ Warham, J. (1996). The Behaviour, Population, Biology and Physiology of the Petrels. London:Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-735415-8
  2. ^ a b Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0
  3. ^ Olson, S. L. , Hearty, P. J. (2003) "Probable extirpation of a breeding colony of Short-tailed Albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) on Bermuda by Pleistocene sea-level rise. " Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 100: (22) 12825–12829.
  4. ^ Shaffer S. A. , Tremblay Y. , Weimerskirch H. , Scott D. , Thompson D. R. , Sagar P. M. , Moller H. , Taylor G. A. , Foley D. G. , Block B. A. , Costa D. P. (2006) "Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the Pacific Ocean in an endless summer. " Proc Natl Acad Sci. 103(34): 12799–12802
  5. ^ Van Den Berg AB, Smeenk C, Bosman CAW, Haase BJM, Van Der Niet AM, Cadée GC (1990) "Barau’s petrel Pterodroma baraui, Jouanin’s petrel Bulweria fallax and other seabirds in the northern Indian Ocean in June–July 1984 and 1985. " Ardea 79:1–14
  6. ^ Seto, N. W. H. , and D. O’Daniel. (1999). Bonin Petrel (Pterodroma hypoleuca). In The Birds of North America, No. 385 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds. ). The Birds of North America, Inc. , Philadelphia, PA.
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  8. ^ Bonadonna, Francesco, Cunningham, Gregory B. , Jouventin, Pierre, Hesters, Florence, Nevitt, Gabrielle A. (2003) Evidence for nest-odour recognition in two species of diving petrel. J. Exp. Biol. 206:3719-3722 abstract
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  21. ^ Brooke, M. (2004) p. 46
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  24. ^ Brooke, M. (2004) p. 75
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  33. ^ A contemporary account of the decline of the Guadalupe Storm-petrel can be found here - Thayer, J. & Bangs, O (1908) "The Present State of the Ornis of Guadaloupe Island" Condor 10(3): 101-106 [10]
  34. ^ Carlile, N. , Proiddel, D. , Zino, F. , Natividad, C. & Wingate, D. B. (2003) "A review of four successful recovery programmes for threatened sub-tropical petrels" Marine Ornithology 31: 185–192
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  38. ^ Nunn, G & Stanley, S. (1998): Body Size Effects and Rates of Cytochrome b Evolution in Tube-Nosed Seabirds. Molecular Biology and Evolution 15(10): 1360-1371 PDF fulltext Corrigendum

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