Private copying levy

A private copying levy (also known as blank media tax or levy) is a government-mandated scheme in which a special tax or levy (additional to any general sales tax) is charged on purchases of recordable media. Public finance is a field of economics concerned with paying for collective or governmental activities and with the administration and design of those activities The field of finance refers to the concepts of Time, Money and Risk and how they are interrelated Payroll tax generally refers to two kinds of taxes: Taxes which Employers are required to withhold from Employees Pay, also known as Withholding A capital gains tax (abbreviated CGT) is a Tax charged on Capital gains the profit realized on the sale of a non-inventory Asset that was purchased Stamp duty is a form of Tax that is levied on documents Historically a physical stamp (a Tax stamp) had to be attached to or impressed upon the document to denote Land value taxation (LVT (or site value taxation) is an Ad valorem tax where only the value of land itself is taxed A sales tax is a Consumption tax charged at the Point of purchase for certain goods and services Value added tax ( VAT) or goods and services tax ( GST) is a consumption Tax levied on value added. A flat tax (short for flat rate tax is a Tax system with a constant tax rate The tax tariff and trade laws of a political region State or Trade bloc determine which forms of consumption and production tend to be encouraged A tax haven is a place where certain Taxes are levied at a low rate or not at all In Economics, tax incidence is the analysis of the effect of a particular Tax on the distribution of economic welfare. In a Tax system and in Economics, the tax rate describes the burden Ratio (usually expressed as a Percentage) at which a business or person is A proportional tax is a Tax imposed so that the Tax rate is fixed as the amount subject to taxation increases A progressive tax is a Tax imposed so that the Tax rate increases as the amount subject to taxation increases A regressive tax is a Tax imposed in such a manner that the Tax rate decreases as the amount subject to taxation increases Tax advantage refers to the economic bonus which applies to certain accounts or Investments that are by Statute, tax-reduced tax-deferred or tax-free Personal income taxes See also Income tax in Australia Only the federal government imposes income taxes on individuals and this is the most significant source of Taxation in the British Virgin Islands is relatively simple by comparative standards photocopies of all of the tax laws of the British Virgin Islands would together amount to about 200 The level of Taxation in Canada is average among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD countries Taxes provide the most important revenue source for the Government of the People's Republic of China. See Government of Colombia for a wider perspective of Colombian government See Government of France for a wider perspective of French government Taxes in Germany —being a Federal Republic —are levied by the federation ( Bund) the States ( Länder) as well as the HK Inland Revenue Ordinance Cap112 is one of Hong Kong's Ordinances Taxes in India are levied by the Central Government and the State Governments This article ls with Taxation in Indonesia or pajak. Definitions "Pajak" in Indonesian for Tax and taxes whereas " Perpajakan The system of Taxation in Ireland is broadly similar to the system of Taxation in the United Kingdom. The Netherlands has a rich history dealing with taxation predating the Romanic period. Taxation in New Zealand is collected at a national level by the Inland Revenue Department (IRD on behalf of the Government of New Zealand. The Income tax in Peru is collected by the Superintendencia Nacional de Administración Tributaria, best known as SUNAT. The Russian Tax Code is the primary tax law for the Russian Federation. Individual income tax in Singapore forms part of two main sources of Income tax, the other being Corporate taxes on companies In Tanzania the Income Tax Act 2004 came into effect in July 2004 Taxation in the United Kingdom may involve payments to a minimum of two different levels of government The central government ( Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs) Taxation in the United States is a complex system which may involve payment to at least four different levels of government and many methods of taxation Value added tax ( VAT) or goods and services tax ( GST) is a consumption Tax levied on value added. Comparison of Tax Rates around the world is a difficult and somewhat subjective enterprise This table lists countries by total 2005 Tax revenues (federal state and local as a percentage of GDP (Gross Domestic Product Economic policy refers to the actions that Governments take in the economic field. Monetary policy is the process by which the Government, Central bank, or monetary authority of a country controls (i the Supply of Money, A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is the entity responsible for the Monetary policy of a country or of a group of member states In Economics, money supply, or money stock, is the total amount of money available in an Economy at a particular point in time The gold standard is a monetary system in which a region's common media of exchange are paper notes that are normally freely convertible into pre-set fixed quantities of Gold Fiscal policy, taking the scope of Budgetary policy, refers to government policy that attempts to influence the direction of the economy through changes in government taxes Government spending or government expenditure is classified by economists into three main types A budget deficit occurs when an Entity (often a Government) spends more Money than it takes in Government debt (also known as public debt or national debt) is Money (or credit) owed by any level of government either Central government Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary A trade pact is a wide ranging Tax tariff and trade pact that often includes Investment guarantees The field of finance refers to the concepts of Time, Money and Risk and how they are interrelated In Economics, a financial market is a mechanism that allows people to easily buy and sell ( Trade) financial Securities (such as stocks and bonds There are two basic financial market participant categories Investor vs Corporate finance is an area of Finance dealing with the financial decisions Corporations make and the tools and analysis used to make these decisions Personal finance is the application of the principles of Finance to the monetary decisions of an individual or family unit Public finance is a field of economics concerned with paying for collective or governmental activities and with the administration and design of those activities Financial regulations are a form of Regulation or supervision which subjects Financial institutions to certain requirements restrictions and guidelines aiming to A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money Fractional-reserve banking is the banking practice in which Banks keep only a fraction of the value of their Bank notes and demand deposits in reserve Full-reserve banking is the Banking practice in which the full amount of each depositor's funds are available in reserve at the bank when each depositor Free banking is a theory of Banking in which commercial banks and market forces control the provision of banking services Islamic banking refers to a system of banking or banking activity that is consistent with Islamic law ( Sharia) principles and guided by Islamic economics For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A sales tax is a Consumption tax charged at the Point of purchase for certain goods and services A data storage device is a device for recording (storing information (data Such taxes are in place in various countries and the income is typically allocated to the developers of "content". (A distinction is sometimes made between "tax" and "levy" based on the recipient of the accumulated funds; taxes are received by a government, while levies are received by a private body, such as a copyright collective. A copyright collective (also known as a copyright collecting agency or copyright collecting society) is a body created by private agreements or by Copyright law )

Levy system may operate in principle as a system of collectivisation, partially replacing a property approach of sale of individual units. Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual

1 A common misconception
2 Questions on fairness
3 Legal effects
4 Regulations
5 References
6 External links

A common misconception

Levies are often considered a compensation for illegal downloading and file sharing. This is a mistake however: levies are not an advance for fines. Levies only intend to compensate for copies in the private sphere that are legally allowed in many jurisdictions. A notable exception in Europe is the UK, that does not allow private copies. But generally legislators allow private copies for two reasons: firstly, because otherwise the enforcement would be unfeasible for private reasons, and secondly because the administrative burden would be disproportional.

Questions on fairness

If one buys a CD, and makes a copy on a MP3 player to listen to it when outdoors, should the author be compensated once more for this copy? According to age-old copyright principles the answer is affirmative: any copy represents a "multiplication" in the sense of copyright law. Those principles date from an era when copying required expensive, professional equipment. Should the old legal rule be maintained now that copying technology is pervasive? Some people find it hard to believe that payments are due for private copies of legally obtained material. Yet, that it the basis for levies.

A difficulty that immediately arises is the practical impossibility of devising a mechanism for distributing the proceeds to copyright holders that is considered "fair" by all copyright holders and consumers. Implemented systems are typically restricted to music and may distribute the proceeds proportionally to a measurement of sales of CDs in music shops or amount of air-play on radio or the like. A Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an Optical disc used to store digital data, originally developed for storing digital audio Radio is the transmission of signals by Modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible Light. This ignores other distribution channels such as the Internet, and it disproportionally benefits popular artists and publishers of the related products. The Internet is a global system of interconnected Computer networks Fairer methods would arguably involve extensive sampling of purchasers to determine actual recording behaviour, or alternatively paying all musicians at a simple flat-rate (the preferred method will depend on ones political views). Sampling is that part of Statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population of concern Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions

While the prime purpose of levy systems is to compensate authors, some part of the collected money is also used for general cultural funding purposes. In Germany this is even required by law. It acknowledges the purpose of cultural diversity - which is not necessarily identical to free market effects. This funding is usually executed by the same entities (collecting societies) that distribute the levy money to individual authors. One may question however whether these entities are properly qualified to make culture policy.

Perhaps more fundamentally, a copyright owner is entitled to decide how his work should be exploited: it is a property, and property is protected by human rights principles. Levy systems assume that all authors want to exploit their work for money. realistically this is not nearly true however on the Internet. Many authors do not write to entertain, but to inform readers, listeners and viewers. Often their purpose is to reach the widest possible audience rather than make the maximum profit from the copyrighted work by itself. The discrepancy between reality and the assumption underlying a levy system is growing as "web 2. 0" matures, with pervasibe user-supplied content, from WikiPedia to YouTube. Of course, some of that material may violate copyright, but most of it is completely original in the copyright sense, and protected under copyright. But not intended for commercial exploitation.

A further problem is to find a proper tariff base for levies. Conceivably the levy may be a percentage of storage media sales price (e. g. 3% in the US). The implication of such a scheme is however that the author gets ever less as technology proceeds and becomes less expensive. But a price based on units of information (bits, or megabits) is not fair either, as for instance a DVD can be used to store a film, a computer game, a large amount of documents, or measurement data. The cost of producing a certain amount of bits widely varies by type of information. Measurement data is even not copyrighted at all. Yet in today's world of converging technology, storage media can be used for a wide range of purposes.

An implementation question that arises is whether the tax applies to any type of copyrighted work or is restricted to a limited field such as music. Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. If it is restricted then the issue arises of how to collect the tax on media which can also be used for other purposes. The options include:

Collecting the tax on all media, regardless of the end use, and ignoring the injustice to purchasers with non-covered uses.
Allowing taxed and untaxed media to be sold, but with only the taxed media providing the copyright-relaxation benefits.
Collecting the tax on all media but allowing purchasers to claim a refund for media applied to non-covered uses.

Legal effects

It is theorized that such levy may be linked to a corresponding relaxation of copyright law, by permitting the recording of copyrighted works on media for which the tax has been paid. Copyright is a legal concept enacted by Governments, giving the creator of an original work of authorship Exclusive rights to control its distribution usually for However, there is little evidence to support this theory. On the contrary, lobbyists representing publishers and copyright holders have increased pressures to implement more restrictive laws, even on countries that have implemented private copying levy. In 2007, it was reported that International Intellectual Property Alliance put 23 of the world's 30 most populous countries into Priority Watch List, even though United States, which was not in the list, has laws that are more liberal than the laws from the countries within the list. ^[1]

Even when restricting levy system to devices that primarily play music, this itself creates loopholes that prevents collecting levies from cellphones, PDAs, and other all-in-one portable electronic devices. As a result, copyright holders will have to rely on even more laws to collect levy, and to increase rates of already levied product to recover perceived losses, which run against the political trends toward eliminating levy systems. ^[2]

Regulations

Examples of countries operating such schemes:

Australia

Australia does not have a private copying levy. Although legislation to create one was passed in 1989, it was declared unconstitutional in Australian Tape Manufacturers Association Ltd v Commonwealth. Australian Tape Manufacturers Association Ltd v Commonwealth (1993 176 CLR 480 is a High Court of Australia case that provides guidance as to the

Belgium

In Belgium a fee is charged on both blank media and recording equipment which is passed on to "Auvibel", which is in charge of distributing the funds.

Audio
- Audio recording equipment, such as a tape recorder: 3% of the sales price
- Integrated audio equipment, such as a Radio-tape recorder or HIFI: 1. 5% of the sales price
- Analogue media, such as an Audio tape: € 0. 10/hour
- Digital media, such as an Audio CD or Minidisc: € 0. 23/hour
Video
- Video recording equipment, such as a VHS or DVD-Recorder: 3% of the sales price
- Integrated video equipment, such as a DVD player with video recorder: 1. 5% of the sales price
- Analogue media, such as a video tape: € 0. 10/hour
- Digital media, such as digital tape (Digital8, DV, etc): € 0. 1239/hour
Multimedia
- blank CD-R, CD-RW: € 0. 12/disc
- blank DVD-R, DVD+R, etc: € 0. 59/disc

Canada

A blank media levy was introduced in Canada in 1997, by the addition of Part VIII, "Private Copying", to the Canadian Copyright Act. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Canadian copyright law is the area of law that defines Copyright within Canada. The power to set rates and to set the distribution allocation is vested in the Copyright Board of Canada. The Copyright Board of Canada is an Economic Regulatory body empowered to establish either mandatorily or at the request of an interested party the Royalties The Copyright Board has handed the task of collecting and distributing the funds to the Canadian Private Copying Collective, which is a non-profit private organization. The Canadian Private Copying Collective is a Canadian Non-profit / Non-government organization created in 1999 to collect and distribute private

In Canada:

The levy applies to "blank audio recording media", such as CD-Rs. A CD-R ( C ompact D isc- R ecordable is a variation of the Compact Disc invented by Philips and Sony.
The levy is paid by importers and manufacturers of such media sold within Canada (and typically passed on to the retailer, and passed on to the purchaser).
The levy is collected regardless of the purchaser's end use of the media.
The private copying levy is distributed as per the Copyright Board's allocation as: 66% to eligible authors and publishers,18. 9% to eligible performers and 15. 1% to eligible record companies.
The Canadian Private Copying Collective has developed a methodology by which the proceeds are distributed to rights holders based on commercial radio airplay and commercial sales samples, ignoring radio/college airplay and independent record sales not logged by Soundscan. This methodology has been criticized as favouring major-label artists at the expense of the long-tail. As of September 7, 2007 over one hundred million dollars has been distributed. Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
In conjunction with the levy, the Copyright Act allows individuals to make copies of sound recordings for their own private, non-commercial use. They may not distribute the copy.
On December 17, 2004, a Canadian judge ruled that the blank media tax no longer applied to MP3 players such as Apple Inc.'s iPod. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3, more commonly referred to as MP3, is a Digital audio encoding format using a form of Lossy data compression Apple Inc, ( formerly Apple Computer Inc, is an American Multinational corporation with a focus on designing and manufacturing Consumer electronics iPod is a popular brand of Portable media players designed and marketed by Apple Inc Before this, the rates were $2 for players with less than 1 GB of capacity, $15 for players up to 15 GB, and $25 for players 15 GB and over. A gigabyte (derived from the SI prefix Giga-) is a unit of Information or Computer
On 2007-2-12, CPCC asked the Copyright Board of Canada to reintroduce the levy of $5 to $75 into the sale price of MP3 players in Canada. [1] In addition, CPCC also proposed levies of $2 to $10 for memory cards (since withdrawn), 8 cent increases to CD, CD-R Audio, CD-RW Audio and MiniDiscs. [2]
On 2007-9, Canadian Recording Industry Association filed lawsuit to Federal Court of Appeal to repeal private copying levy, claiming it legalizes copying for the private use of the person making the copy, regardless of whether the source is non-infringing or not. The Federal Court of Appeal is a Canadian appellate court that hears cases concerning federal matters arising from certain federal Acts [3] On 2007-10-26, the court granted CRIA's request to intervene in the private copying/iPod levy judicial review. [4]
On 2008-01-11, The Federal Court of Appeal rejected the Copyright Board of Canada's proposed new levy on MP3 players, stating that the board erred in law, ruling that they do not have the regulatory authority to impose such levies. The Federal Court of Appeal is a Canadian appellate court that hears cases concerning federal matters arising from certain federal Acts [5]

Canada's current levies are as follows: $0. 24 per unit for Audio Cassette tape (40min or longer); $0. 21 per unit for CD-R Audio, CD-RW-Audio & MiniDisc; $0. 21 per unit for CD-R, CD-RW (non audio)

Finland

It has been said that Finland's blank media fee is one of the highest. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. As of 2008, the fees are (in Euros):

€0. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Please update other articles as well to avoid contradiction within Wikipedia e 005/min for analog audio tapes (e. g. €0. 30 for a 60 minute cassette)
€0. 0076/min for analog video tapes (e. g. €1. 37 for an E180 tape)
€0. 20 per disk for CD and MiniDisc (capacity: up to 1 GB)
€0. A Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an Optical disc used to store digital data, originally developed for storing digital audio A MiniDisc ( MD) is a Magneto-optical disc-based Data storage device initially intended for storage of up to 80 minutes of digitized audio 60 per disk for DVD, DVD-RAM, DVD-R DL and DVD+R DL (capacity: from 1 GB to 10 GB)
€1. DVD (also known as " Digital Versatile Disc " or " Digital Video Disc " - see Etymology)is DVD-RAM ( DVD – Random Access Memory) is a disc specification presented in 1996 by the DVD Forum, which specifies rewritable DVD-RAM media and the appropriate DVD-R DL (DL stands for Dual Layer) also called DVD-R9, is a derivative of the DVD-R format standard DVD+R DL (DL stands for Double Layer) also called DVD+R9, is a derivative of the DVD+R format created by the DVD+RW Alliance. 20 per disk for Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD (capacity: over 10 GB to 25 GB)
€1. not insert the publicly disclosed HD DVD key into this article for the time being 80 per disk for Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD (capacity: over 25 GB)
€4 to €21 depending on capacity of digital audio players or personal video recorders. A digital audio player, more commonly referred to as an MP3 player, is a Consumer electronics device that stores organizes and plays audio files Some A digital video recorder ( DVR) or personal video recorder ( PVR) is a device that records video in a digital format to a Disk drive or other
- €4, memory up to 512 MB
- €7, over 512 MB to 1 GB
- €10, over 1 GB to 20 GB
- €12, over 20 GB to 50 GB
- €15, over 50 GB to 150 GB
- €18, over 150 GB to 250 GB
- €21, over 250 GB

There is no levy fee on mobile phones, computers, memory cards, USB memory and 8 cm CD/DVD disks.

Germany

The world's first private copying system was created in Germany in the 1960s. It was a result of earlier successful litigation by GEMA against an audio equipment manufacturer in GEMA v. Gesellschaft für musikalische Aufführungs- und mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte (GEMA ( Society for musical performing and mechanical reproduction rights) is a Grundig.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands a fee is charged on blank media which is passed on to "Stichting Thuiskopie" (Foundation Homecopy), which is in charge of distributing the funds. Fees for February 17, 2007 until January 1, 2009 are as follows;

Data CD-R/RW: € 0. Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC This article is about the year For the film see 2009 Lost Memories. 14 per disc
Audio CD-R/RW: € 0. 42 per hour (€ 0. 52 per 74 minutes)
Blank DVD-R/RW: € 0. 60 per 4. 7 gigabyte
Blank DVD+R/RW: € 0. 40 per 4. 7 gigabyte
Blank DVD-RAM: exempt
Video analog (video tapes): € 0. 33 per hour
Audio analog (cassette tapes) € 0. 23 per hour
MiniDisc: € 0. 32 per hour
HI-MD: € 1. 10 per carrier

Sweden

In Sweden there is a fee called "privatkopieringsersättning" (private copy retibution) earlier called "kassettersättning" (cassette tape retribution) on compact cassettes, blank CDs, blank minidiscs and other storage media. The fee is 2. 5 öre (0. 025 SEK) per minute of storage for analog media or 0. 4 öre per MB for re-recordable media or 0. 25 öre per MB for write once media. The money collected (224436151 SEK as of 2005) is handled by Copyswede.

United States

Audio home recording in general

17 USC 1008, from the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992, says that non-commercial copying by consumers of digital and analog musical recordings is not copyright infringement. Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) Non-commercial includes such things as resale not in the course of business, perhaps of normal use working copies which are no longer wanted. It's unlikely to include resale of copies in bulk and Napster tried to use the Section 1008 defense but was rejected because it was a business. Napster was an online music file sharing service created by Shawn Fanning while he was attending Northeastern University in Boston and operating

From House Report No. 102-873(I), September 17, 1992: "In the case of home taping, the [Section 1008] exemption protects all noncommercial copying by consumers of digital and analog musical recordings" .

From House Report No. 102-780(I), August 4, 1992: "In short, the reported legislation [Section 1008] would clearly establish that consumers cannot be sued for making analog or digital audio copies for private noncommercial use".

The AHRA was based on the understanding that consumers were not liable for copies to taxed blank media using taxed digital audio tape recorders. It is a logical stretch to assume that this attempt at exemption covers copying using untaxed media and untaxed devices.

The United States music industry does very well in administering Audio Home Recording Act and foreign hometaping royalties for artists on US sound recordings as well as US record labels. These royalties are administered by The Alliance of Artists and Recording Companies for featured artists and copyright owners, ASCAP/BMI/SESAC for writers, and Harry Fox Agency for publishers. The Alliance of Artists and Recording Companies Inc (AARC is the US collective that represents featured artists and recording companies both domestically and abroad The American Society of Composers Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP) is a non-profit Performance rights organization that protects its Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI) is a US Performing rights organization. SESAC, originally the Society of European Stage Authors & Composers, is the smallest of the three Performance rights organizations in the United States The Harry Fox Agency is the United States of America's largest agency collecting and distributing Mechanical license fees on behalf of music publishers AFM and AFTRA also contribute to retrieving foreign funds. The American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA is a performers' union that represents a wide variety of talent including actors in radio and television as well as radio

Blank music CDs and recorders

17 USC 1008 bars copyright infringement action and 17 USC 1003 provides for a royalty of 3% of the initial transfer price. The royalty rate in Section 1004 was established by the Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998. This only applies to CDs which are labeled and sold for music use; they do not apply to blank computer CDs, even though they can be (and often are) used to record or "burn" music from the computer to CD. A similar royalty applies to stand-alone CD recorders, but not to CD burners used with computers.

Thanks to a precedent established in a 1998 lawsuit involving the Rio PMP300 player, MP3 players are deemed "computer peripherals" and are not subject to a royalty of this type in the U. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) The Rio PMP300 was the second portable consumer MP3 Digital audio player (portable digital audio player and was produced by Diamond Multimedia. A digital audio player, more commonly referred to as an MP3 player, is a Consumer electronics device that stores organizes and plays audio files Some S.

References

^ In Good Company. Michael Geist (February 14, 2007). Michael Allen Geist (born 11 July 1968) is a Canadian Academic, and the Canada Research Chair in Internet and E-Commerce Law Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom
^ Recording Industry's Digital Strategy Out of Tune. Michael Geist (February 19, 2007). Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom

External links

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