For the invention and technology of movable type, see Movable type. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation

Printing press from 1811, photographed in Munich, Germany.

A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring an image. The systems involved were first assembled in Germany by the goldsmith Johann Gutenberg in ca. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg ( 1398 &ndash February 3, 1468) was a German Goldsmith and printer who is credited 1439. ^[1] Although both woodblock printing and movable type printing technologies were already developed in ancient China and later Korea in East Asia a few hundred years prior, they did not use a press like that of Gutenberg. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Printing methods based on Gutenberg's printing press spread rapidly throughout first Europe and then the rest of the world. It eventually replaced most versions of block printing, making it the most used format of modern movable type As a method of creating reproductions for mass consumption, the printing press has been superseded by the advent of offset printing. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Offset printing is a commonly used Printing technique where the Inked image is transferred (or "offset" from a plate to a rubber blanket then to the

History

Finely crafted books—like the 1249 Song Dynasty Bencao (materia medica) shown here—were produced by woodblock in China as early as the ninth century, the earliest known being the Diamond Sutra. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Diamond Sutra is a short Mahayana Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom genre which teaches the practice of the avoidance of abiding in extremes ^[2]

The overall invention of Gutenberg's printing method depended for some of its elements upon a diffusion of technologies from East Asia—paper, woodblock printing, and possibly Bi Sheng's movable type printing technology—in addition to a growing demand by the general European public for the lower cost paper books, instead of the exorbitantly expensive parchment books. Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. Bì Shēng ( 990-1051 AD was the inventor of the first known Movable type Printing system Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together Parchment is a thin material made from Calfskin, Sheepskin or goatskin. A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together ^[1] By 1424, Cambridge University library owned only 122 books—each of which had a value equal to a farm or vineyard. The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the ^[1] The demand for these books was driven by rising literacy amongst the middle class and students in Western Europe. traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write or the ability to use Language to read, write, listen, The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power. ^[1] At this time, the Renaissance was still in its early stages and the populace was gradually removing the monopoly the clergy had held on literacy. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[1]

While woodblock printing had arrived in Europe at approximately the same time paper did, this method was not as suitable for literary communication as it was in the east. ^[1] Block printing is well-suited to the written Chinese because character alignment is not critical, but the existence of over 5,000 basic characters made the Chinese movable type technology somewhat inefficient and economically impractical, in terms of profits for the ancient Chinese book publishers. Written Chinese comprises the written symbols used to represent Spoken Chinese and the rules about how they are arranged and punctuated China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[1] With the Latin alphabet, however, the need for precise alignment and a much simpler character set positioned movable type as a great advance for the west. ^[1]

The use of a press was a key technological difference provided European inventors with advantages over their Chinese counterparts—the screw-based presses used in wine and olive oil production. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees ^[1] Attaining mechanical sophistication in approximately the year 1000 CE, devices for applying pressure on a flat-plane were common in Europe. ^[3]

Gutenberg's Press

Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehan—a man he had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill. Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg ( 1398 &ndash February 3, 1468) was a German Goldsmith and printer who is credited ^[1] It was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that official record exists; witnesses testimony discussed type, an inventory of metals (including lead) and his type mold. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy ^[1]

Others in Europe were developing movable type at this time, including goldsmith Procopius Waldfoghel of France and Laurens Janszoon Coster of the Netherlands. Laurens Janszoon Coster (ca 1370 Haarlem, the Netherlands &ndash ca The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands ^[1] They are not known to have contributed specific advances to the printing press. ^{[1] [4]}

In this woodblock from 1568, the printer at left is removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks

Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be more suitable for printing than the clay, wooden or bronze types invented in East Asia. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what some considered his most ingenious invention, a special matrix enabling the quick and precise moulding of new type blocks from a uniform template.

Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. An ink is a Liquid containing various Pigments and/or Dyes used for coloring a surface to produce an Image, text, or As printing material he used both vellum and paper, the latter having been introduced in Europe a few centuries earlier from China by way of the Arabs. Vellum (from the Old French Vélin for "calfskin" is mammal skin prepared for writing or printing on single pages scrolls codices or books Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding

In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of coloured printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies. Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible or the Mazarin Bible) is a printed version of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that ^[5] A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials. Johann Fust (c1400 - October 30 1466) was an early German printer. Peter Schöffer or Petrus Schoeffer (c 1425 in Gernsheim, Groß-Gerau - 1503 Mainz) was an early German printer who studied in Paris ^[6]

Life magazine called the Printing Press the greatest invention in the last 1000 years. It is important to note that it was the alphabet that made the success of the printing press possible. See Online Video: "The Code of da Vinci"for a discussion of the role of the Alphabet in the emergence of printing. See the Online Video: "The Renaissance Computer"for a discussion of the historic consequences of printing.

Historical Impact

See also: History of typography in East Asia

Printing as developed in East Asia did not make use of a printing press as in Gutenberg's case. For the article on the development of printing in Europe see History of western typography. Although the invention of movable type in China and Korea preceded Gutenberg's printing press, the impact of East Asian movable type printing presses was not as influential as it was in Western European society. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation This was likely due to the enormous amount of labour involved in manipulating the thousands of porcelain tablets, or in the case of Korea, metal tablets, required by the use of written Chinese characters. Porcelain is a Ceramic material made by heating raw materials generally including Clay in the form of Kaolin, in a Kiln to temperatures Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across A tablet is a mixture of active substances and Excipients usually in powder form pressed or compacted into a solid Written Chinese comprises the written symbols used to represent Spoken Chinese and the rules about how they are arranged and punctuated Nevertheless, hundreds of thousands of books, on subjects ranging from Confucian Classics to science and mathematics, were printed using the older technology of woodblock printing, creating the world's first print culture. A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. Print culture embodies all forms of printed text and other printed forms of Visual communication. ^[7].

In contrast, the impact of Gutenberg's printing press in Europe was comparable to the development of writing, the invention of the alphabet or the Internet, as far as its effects on society. An alphabet is a standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a Phoneme, a Spoken language, either The Internet is a global system of interconnected Computer networks Just as writing did not replace speaking, printing did not achieve a position of total dominance. Handwritten manuscripts continued to be produced, and the different graphic modes of communication continued to influence each other.

The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution. A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author was entirely lost.

Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading was also changed, gradually changing over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading. The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.

Within fifty or sixty years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now that more people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the first copyright laws were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual property rights. Copyright is a legal concept enacted by Governments, giving the creator of an original work of authorship Exclusive rights to control its distribution usually for Intellectual property ( IP) is a legal field that refers to creations of the mind such as musical literary and artistic works inventions and symbols names A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. Paradoxically, the printing word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation

The art of book printing

For years, book printing was considered a true art form. Typesetting, or the placement of the characters on the page, including the use of ligatures, was passed down from master to apprentice. Typesetting involves the presentation of textual material in graphic form on Paper or some other medium. In Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the "black art," in allusion to the ink-covered printers. The Black Art Press & Print in Baltimore, MD adopted their name for this reason. It has largely been replaced by computer typesetting programs, which make it easy to get similar results more quickly and with less physical labor. Some practitioners continue to print books the way Gutenberg did. For example, there is a yearly convention of traditional book printers in Mainz, Germany. Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate.

Some theorists, such as McLuhan, Eisenstein, Kittler, and Giesecke, see an "alphabetic monopoly" as having developed from printing, removing the role of the image from society. Elizabeth Lewisohn Eisenstein is an American historian of the French Revolution and early 19th century France Friedrich A Kittler (born 1943 in Rochlitz, Saxony) is a literary scientist and a media theorist Other authors stress that printed works themselves are a visual medium. Certainly, modern developments in printing have revitalized the role of illustrations.

The Industrial Revolution

Koenig's 1814 steam-powered printing press

The Gutenberg press was much more efficient than manual copying and still was largely unchanged in the eras of John Baskerville and Giambattista Bodoni—over 300 years later. John Baskerville ( January 28, 1706 - January 8, 1775) was born in the village of Wolverley, near Kidderminster in Giambattista Bodoni ( February 16, 1740 in Saluzzo &ndash November 29, 1813 in Parma) was an Italian ^[8] By 1800, Lord Stanhope had constructed a press completely from cast iron, reducing the force required by 90% while doubling the size of the printed area. ^[8] While Stanhope's "mechanical theory" had improved the efficiency of the press, it still was only capable of 250 sheets per hour. ^[8] German printer Friedrich Koenig would be the first to design a non-manpowered machine—using steam. Friedrich Gottlob Koenig ( April 17, 1774 in Eisleben &ndash January 17, 1833) was a German Inventor best-known ^[8] Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807. ^[8] Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine. "^[8] The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer. Andreas Friedrich Bauer ( August 18, 1783 – 1860 was a German Engineer who developed the first high-speed steam powered Printing press

Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The Times is a daily national Newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785 when it was known as The Daily Universal Register. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The first edition so printed was on November 28, 1814. For the town in Argentina, see 28 de Noviembre. Events Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. A newspaper is a written Publication containing News, information and Advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called Newsprint. A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together Metadata ( meta data, or sometimes metainformation) is "data about data" of any sort in any media Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today. Koenig & Bauer AG (KBA is a German company that makes Printing presses based in Würzburg.

The Miehle P. P. & Mfg. Co. 1905

Later on in the middle of the 19th century the rotary printing press (invented in 1833 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe) allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. A rotary printing press is a Printing press in which the images to be printed are curved around a cylinder The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Richard March Hoe ( September 12, 1812 - June 7, 1886) was an American Inventor who designed an improved Printing Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.

Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. General Info BillHead receipts were common in business transactions from the late 1860s through the early 1940s Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average makeready time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work). Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time.

Later inventions in this field include the following:

• Lithography
• Offset printing
• Desktop publishing
• Electronic publishing
• Computer printer
• Composing stick

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m} Meggs, Philip B. Lithography is a method for Printing using a plate or stone with a completely smooth surface Offset printing is a commonly used Printing technique where the Inked image is transferred (or "offset" from a plate to a rubber blanket then to the Desktop publishing (also known as DTP) combines a Personal computer and WYSIWYG page layout Software to create Publication Documents Electronic publishing includes the digital publication of E-books and Electronic articles and the development of digital libraries and catalogues In Letterpress printing and Typesetting, a composing stick is an instrument used to assemble pieces of metal type into words and lines which are later bound into The history of printing began as an attempt to make easier and reduce the cost of reproducing multiple copies of documents fabrics wall papers and so on The Phaistos Disc ( Phaistos Disk, Phaestos Disc) is a disk of fired Clay from the Minoan palace of Phaistos, possibly dating For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Intaglio (pronounced in-TAL-yo ɪn'tælɪəʊ is a family of Printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface known as the matrix or plate Lithography is a method for Printing using a plate or stone with a completely smooth surface Offset printing is a commonly used Printing technique where the Inked image is transferred (or "offset" from a plate to a rubber blanket then to the Chromolithography is a method for making multi-color prints. This type of color printing stemmed from the process of Lithography, and it includes all types of lithography A rotary printing press is a Printing press in which the images to be printed are curved around a cylinder Flexography (also called surface printing) often abbreviated to flexo, is a method of Printing most commonly used for packaging (labels tape bags Screen printing is a printing technique that uses a woven mesh to support an ink blocking stencil A dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a Computer printer which employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic A photocopier (or copier is a machine that makes Paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply Pad printing is a printing process that can transfer a 2-D image onto a 3-D object A laser printer is a common type of Computer printer that rapidly produces high quality text and graphics on plain paper A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer refers to a type of Computer printer with a print head that runs back and forth on the page and prints by impact striking For the type of printer which uses sparks and aluminised paper (and is sometimes referred to as a "thermal printer" see Spark printer. Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid or molten material ( Ink) onto almost any sized page Digital printing is the reproduction of Digital images on a physical surface 3D printing is a category of Rapid prototyping technology A three dimensional object is created by layering and connecting successive cross sections of material A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ISBN 0-471-291-98-6
2. ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (p 24) ISBN 0-471-291-98-6
3. ^ David Bird, Understanding Wine Technology The Science of Wine Explained, p 47 ISBN 1-891267-91-4
4. ^ While the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition had attributed the invention of the printing press to Coster, the company now attributes it to Gutenberg to reflect, as it says, the common consent that has developed in the 20th century. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica Typography - Gutenberg and printing in Germany. Encyclopædia Britannica ©2007. On the other hand, the Kölnische Chronik (The Cologne Chronicle), published in 1499, states that a prototype for Gutenberg's printing press was invented in the Netherlands and that Donatus's Ars minor was printed there much earlier than in Mainz. [1]. Costeriana
5. ^ Albert Kapr, "Johannes Gutenberg", Scolar 1996, p. 172
6. ^ Albert Kapr, "Johannes Gutenberg", Scolar 1996, p. 203
7. ^ A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, 1971, nos 1-4. ISBN 0691003262
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 130–133) ISBN 0-471-291-98-6

• Fontaine, Jean-Paul. L'aventure du livre: Du manuscrit medieval a nos jours. Paris: Bibliotheque de l'image, 1999.
• Citation from The Encyclopedia of World History Sixth Edition, Peter N. The Encyclopedia of World History is a classic single volume work detailing world history Stearns (general editor), © 2001 The Houghton Mifflin Company, at Bartleby.com. Bartlebycom is an electronic text archive headquartered in New York and named after Herman Melville 's Bartleby the Scrivener.

Further reading

On the effects of Gutenberg's printing

• Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ISBN 0-521-29955-1
• More recent, abridged version: Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2Rev ed, 12 September 2005, Paperback, ISBN 0-521-60774-4
• Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) Univ. of Toronto Press (1st ed. ); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul ISBN 0-7100-1818-5.

See also

• Augustus Applegath - inventor of the vertical print press
• Anilox
• Color printing
• David Bruce
• Flexography
• George E. Clymer
• Letterpress printing
• Muller Martini
• National Print Museum of Ireland
• Print culture
• Printing
• Printmaking
• Typography
• William Clowes (Printer)

External links

• Centre for the History of the Book
• Gutenberg printing Photos of Incunabula and the Gutenberg Bible (1455)
• BGDP Safety on printing presses
• Internet Archive: Printing (1947)—a film from the Prelinger Archives explaining the printing industry
• An Introduction to Letterpress Printing