Citizendia
Your Ad Here

Part of a Series on

Zoology
Branches of Zoology

Anthrozoology · Apiology
Arachnology · Cetology
Conchology · Entomology
Ethology · Herpetology
Ichthyology · Malacology
Mammalogy · Myrmecology
Neuroethology · Ornithology
Planktology · Paleozoology
Primatology
Notable Zoologists

Georges Cuvier · Charles Darwin
William Kirby · Carolus Linnaeus
Konrad Lorenz · Thomas Say
Alfred Russel Wallace · more...
History

pre-Darwin
post-Darwin

This box: view • talk • edit

Primatology is the study of primates. Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Anthrozoology is the study of human - Animal interaction ("animal" referring to all non-human animals also described as the science focusing on Arachnology (from Greek grc ἀράχνη arachnē, "spider" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Cetology (from Greek grc κῆτος kētos, "whale" and grc -λογία -logia) is the branch of Marine mammal Conchology is the scientific, semi-scientific or Amateur study of mollusk shells (in the UK spelled mollusc shells Entomology (from Greek grc ἔντομος entomos, "that which is cut in pieces or engraved/segmented" hence "insect" and grc -λογία Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Herpetology (from Greek: ἑρπετόν herpeton, "creeping animal" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the branch of Zoology Ichthyology (from Greek ἰχθυ ikhthu, "fish" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the branch of Zoology devoted to the study Malacology is the branch of Invertebrate Zoology which deals with the study of Mollusks the second-largest Phylum of animals in terms of described In Zoology, mammalogy is the study of Mammals – a class of Vertebrates with characteristics such as Homeothermic Metabolism Myrmecology (from Greek μύρμεξ myrmex, "ant" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the scientific study of Ants Neuroethology ("neuro" Greek related to Nerve cells, "ethos" Greek habit or custom is an evolutionary and comparative approach to the study of animal behavior Ornithology (from Greek ὄρνις ὄρνιθος ornis, ornithos, "bird" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the branch of Planktology is the study of Plankton, various Microorganisms that inhabit bodies of Water. Paleozoology, also spelled as palaeozoology ( Greek: παλαιον paleon = old and ζωον zoon = animal is the branch of Paleontology Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier ( August 23 1769 &ndash May 13, 1832) was a French naturalist Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life William Kirby ( September 19, 1759 &ndash July 4, 1850) was an English Entomologist, an original member of the Linnean Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Konrad Zacharias Lorenz ( November 7, 1903 in Vienna &ndash February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian Thomas Say ( June 27, 1787 &ndash October 10, 1834) was an American naturalist, Entomologist, Malacologist Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer This is a list of Zoologists by their surnames with abbreviated given names Timeline of zoology This article considers the history of Zoology before the theory of Evolution proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859 This article considers the history of Zoology in the years up to 1912 since the theory of Evolution by Natural selection proposed by Charles A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye It is a diverse discipline and primatologists can be found in departments of biology, anthropology, psychology and many others. In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Physical anthropology is a branch of primatology, which is the primatology of the genus Homo, especially Homo sapiens. Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Homo is the Genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The fields cross over in the study of the hominids, which include all ape-like ancestors of man and the other great apes (for a list of common ancestors with other living species see The Ancestor's Tale). An ancestor is a Parent or ( recursively) the parent of an ancestor (i The Ancestor's Tale (subtitled A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life) is a 2004 Popular science Book by Richard Dawkins

Modern primatology is an extremely diverse science. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding It ranges from anatomical studies of primate ancestors and field studies of primates in their natural habitat, to experiments in animal psychology and ape language. A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. Research into non-human great ape language has involved teaching Gorillas Chimpanzees and Orangutans to communicate with human beings and with each other It has cast an immense amount of light on basic human behaviors and ancient ancestry of these behaviors. Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually

Contents

Disciplines

Primatology as a science has many different disciplines that stem from the differing cultural backgrounds of the founders of the field. Indeed, the study itself seems to change throughout different areas of the world, as different approaches, theories and methods are used in the researching of non-human primates and their relationships and links with humans. A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people

There are two main disciplines within the field of primatology, Western primatology and Japanese primatology. These two divergent disciplines stem from their unique cultural backgrounds and philosophies that went into their founding. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Philosophies: particular schools of thought styles of philosophy or descriptions of philosophical ideas attributed to a particular group or culture - listed in alphabetical Although, fundamentally, both Western and Japanese primatology share many of the same principles, the areas of their focus in primate research and their methods of obtaining data differ widely. A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye

Origins

Western primatology stems primarily from colonial research into primate behaviour, especially by French colonial scientists. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Early primate study focused primarily in medical research, but some scientists also conducted “civilizing” experiments on chimpanzees in order to gauge both primate intelligence and the limits of their brainpower. Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan.

Theory

The Western study of primatology looks at the more biological and psychological aspects of their subjects. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Their focus is on studying the common links between humans and primates, past our shield of ‘society’ and into the nature we share with our ancestors. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. An ancestor is a Parent or ( recursively) the parent of an ancestor (i We will better understand our primitive selves, by understanding our closest animal relatives. Obviously, there have been some cultural and religious issues with the field of primatology, especially as it pertains to the Theory of Evolution. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008

The discipline of Western primatology is affected by the Judeo-Christian background of European and American science. Judeo-Christian (or Judaeo-Christian, sometimes written as Judæo-Christian) is a term used to describe the body of concepts and values which are thought to be held The United States of America —commonly referred to as the As such, researchers tend to have a “steward” mentality towards their subjects, much like that of a park ranger or a guardian. A Park ranger is a person in lead of protecting and preserving parklands - national state or provincial parks A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty to care for the personal and Property interests of another person called a ward Subjects should be unharmed by study, and protected both from and by the research that is done.

Methods

Western primatology is an objective science. "n objective account is one which attempts to capture the nature of the object studied in a way that does not depend on any features of the particular subject who studies it The general belief is that the scientific observation of nature must be either extremely limited, or completely controlled. Either way, the observers must be neutral to their subjects. This allows for data to be unbiased and for the subjects to be uninfluenced by human interference. Bias is a term used to describe a Tendency or Preference towards a particular perspective, Ideology or result especially when the tendency interferes

There are three methodological approaches in primatology: field study – which is the more realistic approach, laboratory study – the more controlled approach, and semi-free ranging - where primate habitat and wild social structure is replicated in a captive setting.

Field study is done in natural environments, in which scientific observers watch primates in their natural habitat.

Laboratory study is done in controlled lab settings. In lab settings, scientists are able to perform controlled experimentation on the learning capabilities and behavioural patterns of the animals. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or

In semi-free ranging studies, scientists are able to watch how primates would act in the wild but have continual access to them, the ability to do lifetime studies, and the ability to control their environments Such facilities include the Living Links Center at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center in Georgia and the Elgin Center at Lion Country Safari in Florida. The Living Links Center is a semi-free ranging primate research center at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. The Yerkes National Primate Research Center, located in Atlanta Georgia at Emory University, is one of eight national Primate research centers funded by The Elgin Center is a non-profit conservation and animal behavioral research center which performs ethological studies primarily at Lion Country Safari in Loxahatchee Florida Lion Country Safari is a drive-through Safari park located in Loxahatchee (near Wellington) in Palm Beach County, Florida.

All types of primate study in the Western methodology are meant to be very neutral. Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" Although there are certain Western primatologists who do more subjective research, the emphasis in this discipline is on the objective.

Early primatology tended to focus on individual researchers and their exploits. Stories of researchers such as Dian Fossey and Jane Goodall are examples of this. Dian Fossey ( January 16, 1932, San Francisco, California &ndash December 26, 1985, Virunga Mountains, Dame Jane Goodall, DBE (born Valerie Jane Morris Goodall on 3 April 1934) is an English UN Messenger of Peace primatologist Long-term sites of research tend to be best associated with their founders, and this leads to some tension between younger primatologists and the veterans in the field. A veteran (from Latin vetus, meaning "old" is a person who has or is working in the armed forces

Notable Western primatologists

Japanese primatology

Origins

The discipline of Japanese primatology was developed out of animal ecology. Geoffrey Howard Bourne ( 17 November 1909 &ndash 19 July 1988) was an Australian U Clarence Ray Carpenter ( CR Carpenter) (1906? - March 1, 1975) was an American primatologist who was one of the first scientific Frans BM de Waal, PhD (born 29 October 1948, 's-Hertogenbosch) is a Dutch Psychologist, Primatologist and Ethologist Dian Fossey ( January 16, 1932, San Francisco, California &ndash December 26, 1985, Virunga Mountains, Biruté Marija Filomena Galdikas, OC PhD (born, Wiesbaden, Germany) is a Primatologist, Conservationist, Ethologist Paul Garber is a Primatologist and the author and editor of several books and articles about Primates He is a professor at the University of Illinois. Dame Jane Goodall, DBE (born Valerie Jane Morris Goodall on 3 April 1934) is an English UN Messenger of Peace primatologist Robert Maurice Sapolsky (born 1957) is the John A and Cynthia Fry Gunn Professor of Biological Sciences and Professor of Neurology and Neurological Sciences and by courtesy Carel P van Schaik (born 1953) is a Dutch primatologist who since 1995 is professor and director of the Anthropological Institute and Museum at the University Craig Stanford is Professor of Anthropology and Biological Sciences and Co-Director of the USC Jane Goodall Research Center at the University of Southern Richard Wrangham is a British primatologist. He is a Professor in Biological Anthropology at Harvard University. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of It is mainly credited to Kinji Imanishi and Junichiro Itani. Kinji Imanishi (今西錦司 ( January 6 1902 - June 15 1992) was a Japanese ecologist and anthropologist. Itani Junichiro (1926 - August 19 2001) is considered a founder of the discipline of Japanese Primatology. Imanishi was an animal ecologist who began studying wild horses before focusing more on primate ecology. He helped found the Primate Research Group in 1950. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Junichiro was a renowned anthropologist and a professor at Kyoto University. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of or is a major national university in Kyoto, Japan. It is the second oldest university in Japan and formerly one of the Imperial Universities of He is a co-founder of the Primate Research Institute and the Centre for African Area Studies. The Primate Research Institute Kyoto University is a national research center for the study of Primates.

Unlike Western Primatology, the Japanese discipline is a male dominated science.

Theory

The Japanese discipline of primatology tends to be more interested in the social aspects of primates. Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye Social evolution and anthropology are of primary interest to them. Social Evolution is the title of an essay by Benjamin Kidd, which became available as a book published by Macmillan and co London in 1894 Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of The Japanese theory believes that studying primates will give us insight into the duality of human nature: individual self vs. As commonly used, individual refers to a Person or to any specific object in a collection social self.

The traditional and cultural aspects of Japanese science lend themselves to an “older sibling” mentality. The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic It is believed that animals should be treated with respect, but also a firm authority. In Politics, authority ( Latin Auctoritas, used in Roman law as opposed to Potestas and Imperium This is not to say that the Japanese study of primatology is cruel – far from it – just that it doesn’t feel that their subjects should be given reverential treatment.

One particular Japanese primatologist, Kawai Masao, introduced the concept of kyokan. is a Japanese Primatologist, who forwarded the concept of Kyokan as a means of studying Primates in his book Life of Japanese Monkeys Kyokan is a Japanese word that means "feel-one" It was a Concept forwarded by Masao Kawai as a means of studying primates in the field This was the theory that the only way to attain reliable scientific knowledge was to attain a mutual relation, personal attachment and shared life with the animal subjects. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Though Kawai is the only Japanese primatologist associated with the use of this term, the underlying principle is part of the foundation of Japanese primate research. For the term in chemistry see Principle (chemistry. Not to be confused with Principal.

Methods

Japanese primatology is a carefully disciplined subjective science. Subjectivity refers to a subject's perspective particularly feelings beliefs and desires It is believed that the best data comes through identification with your subject. Neutrality is eschewed in favour of a more casual atmosphere, where researcher and subject can mingle more freely. Objectivity is both an important and very difficult concept to pin down in philosophy Domestication of nature is not only desirable, but necessary for study. Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe.

Japanese primatologists are renowned for their ability to recognise animals by sight, and indeed most primates in a research group are usually named and numbered. Comprehensive data on every single subject in a group is uniquely Japanese trait of primate research. Each member of the primate community has a part to play, and the Japanese researchers are interested in this complex interaction. In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an Effect upon one another

For Japanese researchers in primatology, the findings of the team are emphasised over the individual. The study of primates is a group effort, and the group will get the credit for it. It is also not unusual to see a team of researches observing the same group of primates for several years in order to get very detailed demographic and social histories. Demographics or demographic data refers to selected population characteristics as used in government Marketing or opinion research or the Demographic profiles

Notable Japanese primatologists

Primatology in sociobiology

Where sociobiology attempts to understand the actions of all animal species within the context of advantageous and disadvantageous behaviors, primatology takes an exclusive look at the order Primates, which includes Homo sapiens. Kinji Imanishi (今西錦司 ( January 6 1902 - June 15 1992) was a Japanese ecologist and anthropologist. Itani Junichiro (1926 - August 19 2001) is considered a founder of the discipline of Japanese Primatology. is a Japanese Primatologist, who forwarded the concept of Kyokan as a means of studying Primates in his book Life of Japanese Monkeys Tetsuro Matsuzawa (松沢 哲郎 born October 15, 1950) is a primatologist who is director of the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto Sociobiology is a neo-Darwinian and Socialism Synthesis of Scientific disciplines that attempts to explain Social behavior Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The interface between primatology and sociobiology examines in detail the evolution of primate behavioral processes, and what studying our closest living primate relatives can tell about our own minds. As the American anthropologist Earnest Albert Hooton used to say: "Primas sum: primatum nil a me alienum puto" ("I am a primate; nothing about primates is outside of my bailiwick"). Earnest Albert Hooton ( November 20, 1887, Clemansville Wisconsin &ndash May 3, 1954, Cambridge Massachusetts) was a The meeting point of these two disciplines has become a nexus of discussion on key issues concerning the evolution of sociality, the development and purpose of language and deceit, and the development and propagation of culture. Additionally, this interface is of particular interest to the science watchers in science and technology studies, who examine the social conditions which incite, mould, and eventually react to scientific discoveries and knowledge. The STS approach to primatology and sociobiology stretches beyond studying the apes, into the realm of observing the people studying the apes.

Taxonomic basis

Before molecular biology, the father of modern taxonomy, Carolus Linnaeus, organized natural objects into kinds. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for He sorted these kinds by morphology, the shape of the object. The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism As it happens, animals such as chimpanzees and orangutans resemble humans very closely, so Linnaeus placed Homo sapiens together with all the other similar-looking organisms into the taxonomic order Primates. A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye Modern techniques in molecular biology have reinforced humanity’s place within the Primate order. Humans and simians share the vast majority of their DNA, with chimpanzees sharing between 97-99% genetic identity with humans. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan.

From grooming to speaking

Although social grooming is observed in many animal species, the grooming activities undertaken by primates are not strictly for the elimination of parasites. In Social animals and humans social grooming or allogrooming is an activity in which individuals in a group clean or maintain each other's body or appearance In primates, grooming is a social activity that strengthens relationships. The amount of grooming taking place between members of a troop is a potent indicator of alliance formation or troop solidarity. Robin Dunbar suggests a link between primate grooming and the development of human language. Robin Ian MacDonald Dunbar (born June 28, 1947, Liverpool) is a British anthropologist and Evolutionary biologist specialising The size of the neocortex in a primate’s brain correlates directly to the number of individuals it can keep track of socially, be it a troop of chimps or a tribe of humans. The neocortex ( Latin for "new Bark " or "new Rind " is a part of the Brain of Mammals It is the outer layer of

This number is referred to as the monkeysphere. See also Dunbar (disambiguation Dunbar's number is the supposed cognitive limit to the number of individuals with whom any one person can maintain stable social relationships If a population exceeds the size outlined by its cognitive limitations, the group undergoes a schism. Set into an evolutionary context, the Dunbar number shows a drive for the development of a method of bonding that is less labor intensive than grooming: language. As the monkeysphere grows, the amount of time that would need to be spent grooming troopmates soon becomes unmanageable. Furthermore, it is only possible to bond with one troopmate at a time while grooming. The evolution of vocal communication solves both the time constraint and the one-on-one problem, but at a price.

Language allows for bonding with multiple people at the same time at a distance, but the bonding produced by language is less intense. This view of language evolution covers the general biological trends needed for language development, but it takes another hypothesis to uncover the evolution of the cognitive processes necessary for language.

Modularity of the primate mind

Noam Chomsky’s concept of innate language addresses the existence of universal grammar, which suggests a special kind of “device” all humans are born with whose sole purpose is language. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Universal grammar is a theory of Linguistics postulating principles of Grammar shared by all languages thought to be innate to humans ( linguistic nativism Fodor’s modular mind hypothesis expands on this concept, suggesting the existence of preprogrammed modules for dealing with many, or all aspects of cognition. Jerry Alan Fodor (born 1935 in New York City, New York) is an American philosopher and cognitive scientist. Although these modules do not need to be physically distinct, they must be functionally distinct. Orangutans are currently being taught language at the Smithsonian National Zoo using a computer system developed by primatologist Dr. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of Francine Neago in conjunction with IBM. Dr Francine Neago is a primatologist and conservationist specializing in Orangutans In addition to her internationally televised films about orangutans International Business Machines Corporation abbreviated IBM and nicknamed "Big Blue", is a multinational Computer Technology

The massive modularity theory thesis posits that there are a huge number of tremendously interlinked but specialized modules running programs called Darwinian algorithms, or DA. A genetic algorithm (GA is a Search technique used in Computing to find exact or Approximate solutions to optimization and Search DA can be selected for just as a gene can, eventually improving cognition. The contrary theory, of generalist mind, suggests that the brain is just a big computer that runs one program, the mind. If the mind is a general computer, for instance, the ability to use reasoning should be identical regardless of the context. This is not what is observed. When faced with abstract numbers and letters with no “real world” significance, respondents of the Wason card test generally do very poorly. Devised in 1966 by Peter Cathcart Wason, the Wason selection task, one of the most famous tasks in the Psychology of reasoning, is a Logic puzzle However, when exposed to a test with an identical rule set but socially relevant content, respondents score markedly higher. The difference is especially pronounced when the content is about reward and payment. This test strongly suggests that human logic is based on a module originally developed in a social environment to root out cheaters, and that either the module is at a huge disadvantage where abstract thinking is involved, or that other less effective modules are used when faced with abstract logic.

Further evidence supporting the modular mind has steadily emerged with some startling revelations concerning primates. A very recent study indicated that human babies and grown monkeys approach and process numbers in a similar fashion, suggesting an evolved set of DA for mathematics (Jordan). The conceptualization of both human infants and primate adults is cross-sensory, meaning that they can add 15 red dots to 20 beeps and approximate the answer to be 35 grey squares. As more evidence of basic cognitive modules are uncovered, they will undoubtedly form a more solid foundation upon which the more complex behaviors can be understood. Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern Psychology.

The primate theory of mind

Primate behavior, like human behavior, is highly social and ripe with the intrigue of kingmaking, powerplays, deception, cuckoldry, and apology. " Kingmaker " is a term originally applied to the activities of Richard Neville 16th Earl of Warwick during the Wars of the Roses in England. Deception (also called beguilement or subterfuge) is the act of convincing another to believe Information that is not true or not the whole truth as in A cuckold is a married man whose wife has sex with other men In current usage it sometimes refers to non-married couples in committed relationships as well although the traditional meaning In order to understand the staggeringly complex nature of primate interactions, we look to theory of mind. " Theory of mind " is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs intents desires pretending knowledge etc Theory of mind asks whether or not an individual recognizes and can keep track of information asymmetry amongst individuals in the group, and whether or not they can attribute folk psychological states to their peers. In Economics and Contract theory, information asymmetry deals with the study of decisions in transactions where one party has more or better Information Folk psychology (also known as common sense psychology naϊve psychology or vernacular psychology is a set of assumptions constructs and convictions about everyday behaviors of ourselves and others If some primates can tell what others know and want and act accordingly, they can gain advantage and status.

Recently, chimpanzee theory of mind has been advanced by Felix Warneken of the Max Planck Institute. The Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e His studies have shown that chimpanzees can recognize whether a researcher desires a dropped object, and act accordingly by picking it up. Even more compelling is the observation that chimps will only act if the object is dropped in an accidental-looking manner: if the researcher drops the object in a way that appears intentional, the chimp will ignore the object.

In a related experiment, groups of chimps were given rope-pulling problems they could not solve individually. Warneken’s subjects rapidly figured out which individual in the group was the best rope puller and assigned it the bulk of the task. This research is highly indicative of the ability of chimps to detect the folk psychological state of “desire”, as well as the ability to recognize that other individuals are better at certain tasks than they are.

Criticisms

Scientific studies concerning primate and human behavior have been subject to the same set of political and social complications, or biases, as every other scientific discipline. The borderline and multidisciplinary nature of primatology and sociobiology make them ripe fields of study because they are amalgams of objective and subjective sciences. Current scientific practice, especially in the hard sciences, requires a total dissociation of personal experience from the finished scientific product (Bauchspies 8). This is a strategy that is incompatible with observational field studies, and weakens them in the eyes of hard science. A field study is a term used by naturalists for the scientific study of free-living wild animals in which the subjects are observed in their natural Hard science is a term used to describe Natural sciences and Physical sciences as distinct from Social science. As mentioned above, the Western school of primatology tries to minimize or control subjectivity to the greatest degree possible, while the Japanese school of primatology tends to embrace the closeness inherent in studying nature.

Social critics of science, some operating from within the field, cry foul when reviewing the young disciplines of primatology and sociobiology. Claims are made that researchers form opinions on issues concerning human sociality prior to doing their studies, and then seek evidence that agrees with their worldview or otherwise furthers a sociopolitical agenda. In particular, the use of primatological studies to assert gender roles, and promote or subvert feminism has been a serious point of contention.

An example of this is Zuckerman’s 1932 study of captive hamadryas baboons, as critiqued in Sturm and Fedigan's Changing Views on Primate Societies. The Hamadryas Baboon ( Papio hamadryas) is a Baboon from the Old World monkey family Linda Marie Fedigan (born 1949 is currently a professor and Canada Research Chair in Primatology and Bioanthropology at the University of Calgary, Zuckerman observed male baboons kill each other off in great number in their captive environment. Whether intended or not, the study served to reinforce images of the male as the sole competitor in an often violent race to secure dominance and access to a harem of females. Despite wildly unrealistic overcrowding and completely incorrect male to female ratio, Zuckerman's paper was viewed as good science at the time. These ideas justified the status quo of human male dominance, and consequently, the studies were widely supported and assumed to be the basis of a primate-wide template for behavior, including that of humans. Incidentally, the hamadryas baboon females are among the most submissive and most gender-unequal of all primates, although primates and humans share a tremendous variation in troop structure (Hrdy 101, Stone).

Sources

See also

External links

Dictionary

primatology

-noun

  1. (zoology) The branch of zoology relating to the study of primates
© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic