Prehistoric Wales in terms of human settlements covers the period from about 225,000 years ago, the date attributed to the earliest human remains found in what is now Wales, to the year 48 AD when the Roman army began a military campaign against one of the Welsh tribes. The country of Wales, or Cymru in Welsh has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years though continuous human habitation Up to and during the Roman occupation of Britain, the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages (a sub-family of the Celtic languages The history of Wales in the early Middle Ages is sketchy as there is very little Written history from the period The Norman invasion of Wales began shortly after the Norman invasion of England. Wales in the Late Middle Ages covers the period from the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd in late 1282 to the incorporation of Wales into England by the Laws in Wales Acts Brycheiniog was a small independent kingdom of South Wales in the Early Middle Ages. Geography List of places in CeredigionCeredigion is a coastal county bordered by Cardigan Bay to the west Gwynedd to the north Powys to the east   The Kingdom of Dyfed was a sub-Roman and early medieval kingdom in south-west Wales. Ergyng (or Erging) was a Welsh kingdom of the sub-Roman and early medieval period between the 5th and 7th centuries. Gwent was one of the kingdoms or principalities of Mediæval Wales, in the Welsh Marches. Gwynedd (pr) is one of several Welsh Successor states that emerged in 5th-century post-Roman Britain. Glywysing was a post-Roman and early medieval kingdom in South Wales.   Seisyllwg was a kingdom of medieval South Wales, covering the areas now known as Ceredigion, part of Carmarthenshire, and the Gower peninsula Welsh settlement in the Americas was the result of several individual initiatives to found distinctively Welsh settlements in the New World. The term Welsh literature may be used to refer to any Literature originating from Wales or by Welsh writers. Wales has a distinctive Culture including its own language, customs Holidays and Music. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military Traditionally, historians have believed that successive waves of immigrants brought different cultures into the area, largely replacing the previous inhabitants, with the last wave of immigrants being the Celts. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts However, studies of population genetics now suggest that this may not be true, and that immigration was on a smaller scale.

Paleolithic

The earliest known human remains discovered in modern-day Wales is a human tooth, found in a cave in the valley of the River Elwy in north Wales, whose owner probably lived during a temperate phase between 225,000 and 186,000 years ago in the Lower Palaeolithic period and is usually classified as early Neanderthal. The River Elwy ( Afon Elwy in Welsh) is a River in North Wales and is a Tributary of the River Clwyd. The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from ^[1] This is the furthest north-westerly site at which Neanderthal remains have been found. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from The remains of classic Neanderthals were found at Coygan Cave and have been dated to about 50,000 years ago.

The Paviland limestone caves of the Gower peninsula in south Wales are by far the richest source of Aurignacian material in Britain, including burins and scrapers dated to about 28,500 years ago. Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 Aurignacian is the name of a culture of the Upper Palaeolithic located in Europe and southwest Asia. Burin from the French burin meaning "cold Chisel " has two specialised meanings for types of tools in English one meaning a Steel ^[2] The first remains of modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens to be found in Wales was the famous Red Lady of Paviland. The Red Lady of Paviland is a fairly complete Upper Paleolithic -era human male skeleton dyed in Red ochre, discovered in 1823 by Rev This was a human skeleton dyed in red ochre discovered in 1826 in one of the Paviland caves. Red ochre and yellow ochre (pronounced /'əʊkə/ from the Greek ὄχρος yellow are Pigments made from naturally tinted Clay. For the game see 1826 (board game. Year 1826 ( MDCCCXXVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display Despite the name, the skeleton is actually that of a young man who lived about 26,000 years ago at the end of the Upper Paleolithic Period (old stone age). The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking ^[3] He is considered to be the oldest known ceremonial burial in Western Europe. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The skeleton was found along with fragments of small cylyndrical ivory rods, fragments of ivory bracelets and seashells. Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, ^[4] Settlement in Wales was apparently intermittent as periods of cooling and warming led to the ice sheets advancing and retreating. Wales appears to have been abandoned from about 21,000 years ago until after 13,000 years ago, with a burial found at Kendrick's Cave on the Great Orme dating to about 12,000 years ago. The Great Orme ( Welsh: Y Gogarth or Pen y Gogarth) is a prominent Limestone headland on the north coast of ^[5]

Mesolithic

Following the last Ice age, Wales became roughly the shape it is today by about 7000 BC and was inhabited by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Wales has many sites where Mesolithic material has been found, but securely stratified material is rare. ^[6]The earliest dated Mesolithic site in Wales is Nab Head, Pembrokeshire, around 9,200 years ago. Geography Pembrokeshire is a maritime County, bordered by the sea on three sides by Ceredigion (Cardiganshire to the northeast and by ^[7] Many of the sites from this period are coastal, although 9,000 years ago they would have been some distance inland from the sea. There is a particular concentration in Pembrokeshire, but there are also a good number of upland sites, most apparently seasonal hunting locations, for example around Llyn Brenig. Geography Pembrokeshire is a maritime County, bordered by the sea on three sides by Ceredigion (Cardiganshire to the northeast and by Llyn Brenig is a reservoir located in North Wales, in the heart of the Denbigh moors on the border between the counties of Conwy and Denbighshire ^[8] Some decorated pebbles found at Rhuddlan represent the earliest art found in Wales. Rhuddlan (pronounced ˈr̥ɨ̞ðlan approximately "RITH-lan" is a Town in the county of Denbighshire (previously in Clwyd ^[9]

An investigation of post holes at the late Neolithic - Early Bronze Age chambered tomb of Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey, published in 2006, gave a radiocarbon dating which placed two of the holes in the Mesolithic period. Bryn Celli Ddu is a Prehistoric site on the Welsh island of Anglesey located near Llanddaniel Fab. History There are numerous Megalithic monuments and Menhirs present on Anglesey testifying to the presence of mankind in prehistory ^[10]

Neolithic

Bryn Celli Ddu, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey

The earliest farming communities are now believed to date from about 4000 BC, marking the beginning of the Neolithic period. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Pollen evidence indicates the clearing of forests on an increasing scale during this period. The Neolithic saw the construction of many chambered tombs, the most notable including Bryn Celli Ddu and Barclodiad y Gawres on Anglesey. Barclodiad y Gawres ( Welsh for apronful of the giantess) is a Neolithic burial chamber two Miles north-west of Aberffraw on the island ^[11] Three main types of megalithic tomb are found in Wales, the Severn-Cotswold type in the south-east, the Portal dolmen type and the Passage graves which are characteristic of the Irish Sea area and the Atlantic façade of Europe and Morocco. Severn-Cotswold (or Cotswold-Severn) is a name given to a type of Megalithic Chamber tomb built by Neolithic peoples in Wales and A dolmen (also known as cromlech, anta, Hünengrab, Hunebed, Goindol, quoit, and portal dolmen) is a type of passage grave (sometimes hyphenated or passage tomb is a tomb usually dating to the Neolithic, where the burial chamber is reached along a distinct passage The Irish Sea ( Irish: Muir Éireann or Muir Meann; Scottish Gaelic: Muir Eireann Welsh: Môr Iwerddon, Megalithic tombs are most common in the western lowlands. ^[12] There is evidence of close cultural links with Ireland, particularly in the Early Neolithic period. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world ^[13]

A number of houses from the Neolithic period have also been found in Wales, most notably the settlement at Clegyr Boia near St David's in Pembrokeshire. St David's ( Welsh: Tyddewi) is the smallest city in the United Kingdom, with a population of under 2000 people Many artefacts have also been found, particularly polished stone axeheads. There were a number of "factories" in Wales producing these axeheads, the largest being the Graig Lwyd factory at Penmaenmawr on the north coast which exported its products as far afield as Yorkshire and the English midlands. Yorkshire is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in Great Britain. ^[14] Pottery finds also indicate a relationship with Ireland.

The Bronze Age

The Mold cape, now in the British Museum

Metal tools first appeared in Wales about 2500 BC, initially copper followed by bronze. The Mold cape is a solid sheet- Gold object dating from about 1900-1600 BC in the European Bronze Age. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus The climate during the Early Bronze Age (c. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for 2100-1400 BC) is thought to have been warmer than at present, as there are many remains from this period in what are now bleak uplands. Much of the copper for the production of bronze probably came from the copper mine on the Great Orme, where prehistoric mining on a very large scale dates largely from the middle Bronze Age. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 The Great Orme ( Welsh: Y Gogarth or Pen y Gogarth) is a prominent Limestone headland on the north coast of ^[15] In particular copper from the Great Orme mines appears to have been used for the production of bronze implements of the Acton Park Complex, named after a hoard found at Acton Park near Wrexham. Acton Park is a residential area in the county borough of Wrexham, in Wales. Wrexham (Wrecsam is a town and principal area in Wales. It is the largest town in North Wales and lies to the east of the region These tools, particularly axeheads, were developed towards the end of the Early Bronze Age and are innovative in both metallurgy and design. Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their They were widely exported, with examples being found along the continental coast from Brittanny to north Germany. Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. ^[16]

Burial practices in the Bronze Age differed from the communal tombs of the Neolithic period, with a change to burial in round barrows and the provision of grave goods. Round barrows are one of the most common types of archaeological Monuments Although concentrated in Europe they are found in many parts of the world because Inhumation was soon replaced by cremation and in Wales the cemetery mound with a number of burials had become the standard form by about 2000 BC. ^[17] One of the most striking finds from Bronze Age Wales was the gold cape found in a tomb at Bryn yr Ellyllion, Mold, Flintshire dated to 1900-1600 BC, weighing 560 g and produced from a single gold ingot. The Mold cape is a solid sheet- Gold object dating from about 1900-1600 BC in the European Bronze Age. Mold (Yr Wyddgrug is a Town in Flintshire, North Wales, on the River Alyn. Very few weapons have been found in Early Bronze Age graves in Wales compared with other objects, and the lack of traces of earlier Bronze Age settlements is thought to indicate that farms or hamlets were undefended. ^[18]

From about 1250 BC there was a deterioration in the climate which became more marked from about 1000 BC, with higher rainfall and much lower summer temperatures. This led to an increase in peat formation and probably the abandonment of many upland settlements. ^[19] It has been suggested that this led to conflict and to changes in social organization, with the earliest hillforts appearing about 800 BC. ^[20]

The Late Bronze Age saw the development of more advanced bronze implements, with weapons becoming increasingly common. ^[21] While the weapons reflect introduced styles, there are pronounced regional variations in the styles of tools, particularly axes. On the basis of tool types, Wales can be divided into four regions, the south-east, south-west, north-west and north-east. Interestingly these regions show an approximate correspondence to the territories of the tribes later recorded in these areas by the Romans, the Silures, Demetae, Ordovices and Deceangli respectively. The Silures were a powerful and warlike Tribe of ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouthshire, Breconshire and The Demetae were a Celtic people of Iron Age Britain who inhabited modern Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire in south-west Wales The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Islands before the Roman invasion of Britain. The Deceangli or Deceangi were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Isles prior to the Roman invasion of Britain. ^[22]

The Iron Age

Entrance through the dry-stone rampart, Tre'r Ceiri hillfort, Gwynedd

The earliest iron implements found in Wales come from Llyn Fawr at the head of the Rhondda Valley, where objects apparently deposited as votive offerings include three made of iron; a sword, a spearhead and a sickle. Llyn Fawr is a Lake in South Wales, best known as the site of an important Hoard of weapons and tools from the late Bronze Age and early The River Rhondda (Afon Rhondda is a River in the Rhondda Valley South Wales which has two major Tributaries; the Rhondda Fawr (Large Rhondda A votive deposit or votive offering is an object left in a Sacred place for Ritual purposes These items are thought to date to about 650 BC, and while the sword appears to be imported the sickle is an imitation of a native bronze prototype. ^[23] The Iron Age saw the building of hillforts which are particularly numerous in Wales, examples being Pen Dinas near Aberystwyth and Tre'r Ceiri on the Llŷn pensinsula. In Britain and Ireland the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non- Romanised A hill fort is a fortified refuge or defended settlement Pen Dinas is the name of a hill south of Aberystwyth on the coast of Ceredigion, Wales, upon which an extensive Iron Age Hill fort Aberystwyth (Mouth of the River Ystwyth ˌæbəˈrɪstwɪθ Dialect: abɛrˈəstɔʏθ is a historic Market town, administrative centre and holiday resort within Tre'r Ceiri is a Hill fort dating back to Roman times being built around 100 B The earliest distinctively Iron Age settlement in Wales is considered to be Castell Odo, a small hillfort near the tip of the Llŷn peninsula, dated to about 400 BC. ^[24] The largest hillforts are most numerous along the eastern border of Wales, with some large examples also found in the lowlands of north-west Wales. In the south-west, by contrast, hillforts are very numerous but mainly small, with an area of under 1. 2 hectares. ^[25]

A particularly significant find from this period was made in 1943 at Llyn Cerrig Bach on Anglesey, when the ground was being prepared for the construction of a Royal Air Force base. Llyn Cerrig Bach is a small lake in the north-west of the island of Anglesey, Wales. The cache included weapons, shields, chariots along with their fittings and harnesses, and slave chains and tools. The chariot is the earliest and simplest type of Carriage, used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples Many had been deliberately broken and seem to have been votive offerings. A votive deposit or votive offering is an object left in a Sacred place for Ritual purposes ^[26] These finds are considered to be one of the most important collections of La Tène metalwork discovered in Britain. The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site Pottery on the other hand is fairly rare in Wales during this period and most of what has been found appears to be imported. ^[27]

The La Tène culture is traditionally associated with the Celts, and the general view until fairly recently was that the appearance of this culture indicated a large-scale invasion by peoples who also brought a celtic language which later developed into Welsh ^[28]. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic The currently more popular view is that any movement of peoples was on a smaller scale, with cultural diffusion responsible for most of the changes. There is some evidence to support the latter model, such as burials associated with earlier religious sites. ^[29] It has been suggested that a celtic language was being spoken in Wales by about 700 BC.

The prehistoric period ended with the arrival of the Roman army who began their campaigns against the Welsh tribes in 48 AD with an attack on the Deceangli in north-east Wales. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military The Deceangli or Deceangi were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Isles prior to the Roman invasion of Britain. Wales was divided between a number of tribes, of which the Silures and the Ordovices put up the most stubborn resistance. The Silures were a powerful and warlike Tribe of ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouthshire, Breconshire and The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Islands before the Roman invasion of Britain. The Roman conquest was complete by 79 AD. The reports of Roman historians such as Tacitus give a little more information about Wales in this period, such as that the island of Anglesey was apparently a stronghold of the Druids. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. History There are numerous Megalithic monuments and Menhirs present on Anglesey testifying to the presence of mankind in prehistory A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies The impact of the arrival of the Romans may have varied from one part of Wales to another; for example there is evidence that some hillforts, such as Tre'r Ceiri, continued to be occupied during the Roman period.

Notes

1. ^ Lynch, Aldhose-Green & Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 6
2. ^ Lynch, Aldhose-Green & Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 16
3. ^ Davies, J A history of Wales p. 4
4. ^ Lynch, Aldhose-Green & Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 18-19
5. ^ Lynch, Aldhose-Green & Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 41
6. ^ Lynch, Aldhouse-Green and Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 39
7. ^ Lynch, Aldhouse-Green and Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 23
8. ^ Lynch, Aldhouse-Green and Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 31
9. ^ Lynch, Aldhouse-Green and Davies Prehistoric Wales p. 38
10. ^ Pitts, M. Sensational new discoveries at Bryn Celli Ddu p. 6
11. ^ Lynch, F. Prehistoric Anglesey pp. 34-42, 58
12. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales pp. 42-43
13. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales pp. 54
14. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales pp. 56-7
15. ^ Lynch, F. Gwynedd pp. 39-40
16. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales p. 99
17. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales p. 126
18. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales p. 138
19. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales pp. 140-5
20. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales pp. 150
21. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales pp. 180
22. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales pp. 184
23. ^ Cunliffe, B. (ed) Iron Age communities in Britain p. 290
24. ^ Foster, I. Ll. & Daniel, G Prehistoric and early Wales p. 130
25. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales p. 147
26. ^ Lynch, F. Prehistoric Anglesey pp. 249-77
27. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales p. 199
28. ^ Cunliffe, B. (ed) Iron Age communities in Britain p. 3
29. ^ Lynch, F. et al Prehistoric Wales p. 213

References

• Barry Cunliffe (1987) Iron Age communities in Britain' (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 2nd ed) ISBN 0-7100-8725-X

• John Davies, (1994) A History of Wales (Penguin Books) ISBN 0-14-014581-8

• I. Ll. Foster & Glyn Daniel (eds) (1965) Prehistoric and early Wales (Routledge and Kegan Paul)

• John Edward Lloyd (1911) A history of Wales: from the earliest times to the Edwardian conquest (Longmans, Green & Co. )

• Frances Lynch (1995) Gwynedd (A guide to ancient and historic Wales series) (HMSO) ISBN 0-11-701574-1

• Frances Lynch (1970) Prehistoric Anglesey: the archaeology of the island to the Roman conquest (Anglesey Antiquarian Society)

• Frances Lynch, Stephen Aldhouse-Green and Jeffrey L. Davies (2000) Prehistoric Wales (Sutton Publishing) ISBN 0-7509-2165-X

• Pitts, M. 2006. Sensational new discoveries at Bryn Celli Ddu. British Archaeology No. 89 (July/August) p. 6

• J. A. Taylor (ed) (1980) Culture and environment in prehistoric Wales (BAR British series 76) ISBN 0-86054-079-0

See also

• Early history of Ireland
• Prehistoric Britain
• Prehistoric Scotland
• Prehistoric Wales