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Prehistoric Iberia
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The Prehistory of the Iberian peninsula begins with the arrival of the first hominins c. Portugal is a European Nation whose origins go back to the Early Middle Ages. In Latin poetry Oestreminis ("Extreme West" was a name given to the territory of what is today modern Portugal, comparable to Finis terrae, the Ophiussa, also spelled Ophiusa, is the ancient name given by the ancient Greeks to what is now Portuguese territory The Gallaeci, Callaeci, or Callaici were a Pre- Roman Celtic single or various tribes living in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula The Lusitanians (or Lusitani in Latin) were an Indo-European people living in the western Iberian Peninsula long before it became the Roman The Celtici were a Celtic tribe of the Iberian peninsula, akin either to the Lusitanians and Gallaecians or the Celtiberians, living The Cynetes or Conii were a one of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, living in today's Algarve and Low Alentejo regions of southern The Roman conquest of Hispania was a historical period that began with the Roman landing at Empúries in 218 BC and ended with the Roman conquest of the Iberian The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western The Lusitanian War, called the Purinos Polemos (meaning Fiery War) was a war of resistance fought between the advancing legions of the Roman Republic Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar This article concerns the Roman province For the ship see RMS Lusitania. Gallaecia or Callaecia was the name of a Roman province that comprised The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Visigothic kingdom was a Western European power from the fifth to eighth century one of the Successor states to the Western Roman Empire, originally The Suebi or Suevi (from Proto-Germanic * swēbaz based on the Proto-Germanic root * swē- meaning "one's own" Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period The Kingdom of Asturias was the first Christian political entity to be established in the Iberian peninsula after the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. Condado de Portucale was the first County founded in Portugal. The County of Coimbra (Condado de Coimbra was a political entity instituted as a military unit of defense in the borders of the Kingdom of Galicia in the Iberian Peninsula The Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal was formed in 1065 after the County of Portugal declared Independence following Condado Portucalense was the second County founded in Portugal. The Kingdom of Portugal was Portugal 's general designation under the monarchy. The history of Portugal, in most of the 12th and 13th centuries is chiefly that of its origin as a separate state in the process of the Christian The Consolidation of the Monarchy in Portugal ( 1279 - 1415) 1279 Until the Early 14th Century The chief problems now confronting the monarchy For additional context see History of Portugal and Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese Empire was the earliest and longest lived of the modern European colonial empires spanning almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta This article is a comprehensive list of all the actual possessions of the Portuguese Empire Iberian Union is a modern day term that refers to the historical political unit that governed all of the Iberian peninsula south of the Pyrenees from 1580–1640 The History of Portugal from the beginning of Maria I's reign in 1777 to the end of the Liberal Wars in 1834 spans a complex historic period in which several The Portuguese First Republic (Primeira República spans a complex 16 year period in the history of Portugal, between the end of the Constitutional Monarchy The Ditadura Nacional ( Portuguese for National Dictatorship was the name of the Portuguese regime initiated by the election of President Óscar Carmona Estado Novo ( Portuguese for " New State " pron (ɨʃ'tadu 'novu also known as the Second Republic) is the name of the Portuguese The Portuguese Third Republic is a period in the History of Portugal corresponding to the current democratic regime installed after the Carnation Revolution Euro 2004 Euro 2004 was won by Greece The final match was played by Greece and Portugal. This article covers the economic history of Portugal. Portugal was once one of the largest and most powerful political and economic powers in the world The Military history of Portugal is as long as the history of the country, either before the emergence of the socio-political reality of an independent Portuguese state The Portuguese Empire was the earliest and longest lived of the modern European colonial empires spanning almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta The Portuguese language developed in the Western Iberian Peninsula from Latin brought there by Roman soldiers and colonists starting in the 3rd century Medieval music Liturgical repertoire In the early days of the Catholic Church several local liturgies developed such as the Gallican in France the Sarum in England This is a historical timeline of Portugal. See also History of Portugal Pre-Roman Western Iberia (Before the 3rd century BC The History of Spain spans the period from Prehistoric Iberia, through the rise and fall of the first global empire, to Spain's current position Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar After the disorders of the passage of the Vandals and Alans down the Mediterranean coast of Hispania from 408, the history of Medieval Spain The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Suebi or Suevi (from Proto-Germanic * swēbaz based on the Proto-Germanic root * swē- meaning "one's own" The Kingdom of Galicia (410-1833 was a kingdom of the Iberian Peninsula for two distinct periods Spania (Provincia Spaniae was a province of the Byzantine Empire from 552 until 624 in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period The Catholic Monarchs (los Reyes Católicos is the collective title used in history for Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon Habsburg Spain refers to the history of Spain over the 16th and 17th centuries (1516-1700 when this country was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty (also associated to The Age of Enlightenment (in Spanish Ilustración) came to Spain in the eighteenth century with the French Bourbon dynasty, after the decay Spain in the mid-nineteenth century was a country in turmoil Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814 a massively destructive " war of independence " ensued The First Spanish Republic started with the Abdication as King of Spain on February 10 1873, of Amadeo I, following the Hidalgo The Restoration was the name given to the period that began in December 29 1874 after the First Spanish Republic ended with the restoration of The Second Spanish Republic was the system of government in Spain between April 14 1931, when King Alfonso XIII left the country The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of The Spanish transition to democracy was the era when Spain moved from the Dictatorship of Francisco Franco to a liberal democratic state. For all intents and purposes the history of Modern Spain began with the death of Franco on the 20 November, 1975, the accession of King Juan The Economic history of Spain covers the development of the Spanish economy over the course of its history The military history of Spain includes the history of battles fought in the territory of modern Spain, as well as her former and current overseas possessions and territories The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Hominini is the tribe of Homininae that comprises humans ( Homo) Chimpanzees ( Pan) and their Extinct ancestors 900,000 Before Present (BP) and ends with the Punic Wars, when the territory enters the domains of written history. Before Present (BP years are a time scale used in Archaeology, Geology, and other scientific disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient In this long period, some of its most significative landmarks were to host the last stand of the Neanderthal people, to develop some of the most impressive Paleolithic art, alongside with southern France, to be the seat of the earliest civilizations of Western Europe and finally to become a most desired colonial objective due to its strategic position and its many mineral riches. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism

Contents 1 Lower and Middle Paleolithic 2 Upper Paleolithic 2.1 Early Upper Paleolithic 2.2 Middle Upper Paleolihic 2.2.1 Gravettian 2.2.2 Solutrean 2.3 Late Upper Paleolithic 2.4 Paleolithic art 2.5 Archaeogenetics 3 Epipaleolithic 3.1 Azilian 3.2 Geometrical microlithism 3.3 Asturian 4 Neolithic 5 Chalcolithic 6 Bronze Age 6.1 Early Bronze 6.2 Middle Bronze 6.3 Late Bronze 7 Iron Age 7.1 Indo-European (Celtic) expansion 7.2 Phoenician colonization and influence 7.3 Greek colonization 7.4 The Tartessian-Orientalizing culture 7.5 The Iberian culture 7.6 Portuguese Iron Age 7.7 Arrival of Romans and Punic Wars 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 See also 11 External links

Lower and Middle Paleolithic

Hominin inhabitation of the Iberian Peninsula dates from the Paleolithic. The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" Early hominin remains have been discovered at a number of sites on the peninsula. Significant evidence of an extended occupation of Iberia by Neandertal man has also been discovered. Homo sapiens first entered Iberia towards the end of the Paleolithic. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus For a time Neanderthals and modern humans coexisted until the former were finally driven to extinction. Modern man continued to inhabit the peninsula through the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos

Iberia has a wealth of prehistoric sites. Many of the best preserved prehistoric remains are in the Atapuerca region, rich with limestone caves that have preserved a million years of human evolution. Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina, where six hominin skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, or a new species called Homo antecessor. Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin Homo heidelbergensis ("Heidelberg Man" is an Extinct Species of the Genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor Homo antecessor is an extinct Hominin and a potential distinct species dating from 1 In the Gran Dolina, investigators have found evidence of tool use to butcher animals and other hominins, the first evidence of cannibalism in a hominin species. A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other A butcher is someone who prepares various Meats and other related goods for sale Cannibalism (from Spanish es ''caníbal'' in connection with cannibalism among the Antillean Caribs, also called anthropophagy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος Evidence of fire has also been found at the site, suggesting they cooked their meat. Fire is the heat and light energy released during a Chemical reaction, in particular a combustion reaction.

Also in Atapuerca, is the site at Sima de los Huesos, or "Pit of Bones". Excavators have found the remains of 30 hominins dated to about 400,000 years ago. Hominini is the tribe of Homininae that comprises humans ( Homo) Chimpanzees ( Pan) and their Extinct ancestors The remains have been tentatively classified as Homo heidelbergensis and may be ancestors of the Neanderthals. No evidence of habitation has been found at the site except for one stone hand-ax, and all of the remains at the site are of young adults or teenagers. The age similarity suggests the remains were not the result of accidents. The seemingly deliberate placement of remains and lack of habitation may mean that the bodies were deliberately interred in the pit as a place of burial, which would make the site the first evidence of hominin burial.

Around 200,000 BC, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Around 70,000 BC, during the Middle Paleolithic period the last ice age began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established. The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, "Last glacial" redirects here For the period of maximum glacier extent during this time see Last Glacial Maximum The last glacial period Mousterian is a name given by archaeologists to a style of predominantly Flint tools (or industry) associated primarily with Homo neanderthalensis Around 35,000 BC, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began. The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa Châtelperronian was the earliest industry of the Upper Palaeolithic in central and south western France, extending also into Northern Spain. Emanating from Southern France this culture extended into Northern Iberia. Southern France (or the South of France) colloquially known as Le Midi, is a loosely defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that This culture continued to exist until around 28,000 BC when Neanderthal man faced extinction, their final refuge being present-day Portugal.

Neanderthal remains have been found at a number of sites on the Iberian Peninsula. A Neanderthal skull was found in Forbes's Quarry in Gibraltar in 1848 making Spain the first country where remains of Neanderthals were found. Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar Neanderthals were not recognized as a separate species until the discovery of remains in Neandertal, Germany in 1856. The Neandertal is a small valley of the river Düssel in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia, located about east of Düsseldorf Subsequent Neanderthal discoveries in Gibraltar have also been made including the skull of a four-year-old child and preserved excrement on top of baked mussel shells. The common name mussel is used for members of several different families of Clams or Bivalve Molluscs, from both saltwater and freshwater habitats

In Zafarraya a Neanderthal mandible and Mousterian tools, associated with the Neanderthal culture, were found in 1995. Zafarraya is a Municipality in the Province of Granada, Spain, with a population of 2200 (2003 The mandible (from Latin mandibula, "jawbone" or inferior maxillary bone forms the lower Jaw and holds the lower teeth in place The mandible was dated to about 28,000 BC and the tools to about 25,000 BC. These dates make the Zafarraya remains the youngest evidence of Neanderthals and have expanded the timeline of Neanderthal existence. The more recent dating of the remains also provides the first evidence for prolonged co-existence between Neanderthals and modern man. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus L'Arbreda Cave in Catalonia contains Aurignacian cave paintings, as well as earlier remains from Neanderthals. Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Aurignacian is the name of a culture of the Upper Palaeolithic located in Europe and southwest Asia. Cave paintings are Paintings on Cave walls and ceilings and the term is used especially for those dating to Prehistoric times Some have also suggested that the newer remains in Iberia suggest Neanderthals were driven out of Central Europe by modern man to the Iberian peninsula where they sought refuge. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and

Upper Paleolithic

Early Upper Paleolithic

The Chatelperronian culture (typically associated with Neanderthal man) is found in the Cantabrian region and in Catalonia. Châtelperronian was the earliest industry of the Upper Palaeolithic in central and south western France, extending also into Northern Spain. The Franco-Cantabrian region (also Franco-Cantabric region) is a term applied in Archaeology and History to refer to an area that stretches from Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain.

The Aurignacian culture (work of Homo sapiens) succeeds it and has the following periodization^[1]:

• Archaic Aurignacian: found in Cantabria (Morín and El Pendo caves), where it alternates with Chatelperronian, and in Catalonia. Aurignacian is the name of a culture of the Upper Palaeolithic located in Europe and southwest Asia. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Cantabria is a Spanish province and Autonomous community with Santander as its capital city The carbon-14 (¹⁴C) dates for Morín cave are relatively late in the European context: c. Carbon-14, 14C, or radiocarbon, is a Radioactive isotope of Carbon discovered on February 27, 1940, by 28,500 BP, but the occupation dates for El Pendo (where it's older than Chatelperronian layers) must be of earlier date.
• Typical Aurignacian: it is found in Cantabria (Morín, El Pendo, Castillo), the Basque Country (Santimamiñe) and Catalonia. The Basque Country ( Basque Euskadi, Spanish País Vasco) is an autonomous community in northern Spain. Santimamiñe cave, Kortezubi, Biscay, Basque Country is one of the most important archaeological sites of the Basque Country including a nearly complete The radicarbon datations give the following dates: 32,425 and 29,515 BP.
• Evolved Aurignacian: it is found in Cantabria (Morin, El Pendo, El Otero, Hornos de la Peña), Asturias (El Cierro, El Conde) and Catalonia. The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an
• Final Aurignacian: in Cantabria (El Pendo), after the Gravettian interlude.

In the Mediterranean area (south of the Ebro), Aurignacian remains have been found sparsely distributed in the Lands of Valencia (Les Mallaetes) and Murcia (Las Pereneras) and Andalusia (Higuerón), as far west as Gibraltar (Gorham's Cave). The Ebro ( Ebre) is Spain 's most voluminous river Its source is in Fontibre ( Cantabria) The Valencian Community ( Valencian and official Comunitat Valenciana; Comunidad Valenciana is an Autonomous community located in central to The Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia (Spanish Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia) is one of Spain 's seventeen autonomous communities Andalusia (Andalucía is an autonomous community of Spain. It is the most populous and the second largest in terms of land area Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar The ¹⁴C dates available are: 29,100 BP (Les Mallaetes), 28,700 and 27,860 BP (Gorham's Cave).

Middle Upper Paleolihic

Gravettian

The Gravettian culture followed the steps of the Aurignacian expansion but its remains are not very abundant in the Cantabrian area (north), while in the southern region they are more common. The Gravettian was an industry of the European Upper Palaeolithic.

In the Cantabrian area all Gravettian remains belong to late evolved phases and are found always mixed with Aurignacian technology. The Franco-Cantabrian region (also Franco-Cantabric region) is a term applied in Archaeology and History to refer to an area that stretches from The main sites are found in the Basque Country (Lezetxiki, Bolinkoba), Cantabria (Morín, El Pendo, El Castillo) and Asturias (Cueto de la Mina). It is archeologically divide in two phases characterized by the amount of Gravettian elements: the phase A has a ¹⁴C date of c. 20,710 BP and the phase B is of later date.

The Cantabrian Gravettian has been paralleled to the Perigordian V-VII of the French sequence. Périgordian is a term for several distinct but related Upper Palaeolithic cultures which are thought by some archaeologists to represent a contiguous Tradition It eventually vanishes from the archaeological sequence and is replaced by an "Aurignacian renaissance", at least in El Pendo cave. It is considered "intrusive", in contrast with the Mediterranean area, where it probably means a real colonization^[1].

In the Mediterranean region, the Gravettian culture also had a late arrival. Nevertheless, the south-east has an important number of sites of this culture, specially in the Land of Valencia (Les Mallaetes, Parpaló, Barranc Blanc, Meravelles, Coba del Sol, Ratlla del Musol, Beneito). It is also found in the Land of Murcia (Palomas, Palomarico, Morote) and Andalusia (Los Borceguillos, Zájara II, Serrón, Gorham's Cave).

The first indications of modern human colonization of the interior and the west of the peninsula are found only in this cultural phase, with a few late Gravettian elements found in the Manzanares valley (Madrid) and Salemas cave (Alemtejo, Portugal). The Manzanares is a River in central Spain, which at one point passes through Madrid. Alentejo (ɐlẽˈtɛʒu is a south-central region of Portugal.

Solutrean

The Solutrean culture shows its earliest appearances in Laugerie Haute (Dordogne, France) and Les Mallaetes (Land of Valencia), with radiocarbon dates of 21,710 and 20,890 BP respectively. The Solutrean industry is a relatively advanced flint tool-making style of the Upper Palaeolithic. Dordogne (Dordonha is a department in central France named after the Dordogne River. ^[1] In the Iberian peninsula it shows three different facies:

The Iberian (or Mediterranean) facies is defined by the sites of Parpalló and Les Mallaetes in the province of Valencia. Valencia ( Spanish: Valencia /ba'lenθja/ Valencian: València /va'łen They are found immersed in important Gravettian perdurations that would eventually redefine the facies as "Gravettizing Solutrean"^[1]. The archetypical sequence, that of Parpalló and Les Mallaetes caves, is:

• Initial Solutrean.
• Full or Middle Solutrean, dated in its lower layers to 20,180 BP.
• An sterile layer with signs of intense cold that is related to the Last Glacial Maximum. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM refers to the time of maximum extent of the Ice sheets during the last Glaciation (the Würm or Wisconsin glaciation) approximately
• Upper or Evolved Solutrean, including bone tools and also needles of this material.

These two caves are surrounded by many other sites (Barranc Blanc, Meravelles, Rates Penaes, etc. ) that show only a limited impact of Solutrean and instead have many Gravettian perdurations, showing a convergence that has been named as "Gravetto-Solutrean".

Solutrean is also found in the Land of Murcia, Mediterranean Andalusia and the lower Tagus (Portugal). The Tagus ( Latin Tagus, Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, pron. In the Portuguese case there are no signs of Gravettization.

The Cantabrian facies shows two markedly different tendencies in Asturias and the Vasco-Cantabrian area. The oldest findings are all in Asturias and lack of the initial phases, beginning with the full Solutrean in Las Caldas (Asturias) and other nearby sites, followed by evolved Solutrean, with many unique regional elements. Radiocarbon dates oscillate between 20,970 and 19,000 BP. ^[1]

In the Vasco-Cantabrian area instead the Gravettian influences seem persistent and the typical Solutrean foliaceous elements are minority. Some transitional elements that prelude the Magdalenian, like the monobiselated bone spear point, are already present. Most important sites are Altamira, Morín, Chufín, Salitre, Ermittia, Atxura, Lezetxiki, and Santimamiñe.

In northern Catalonia there is an early local Solutrean, followed by scarce middle elements but with a well developed final Solutrean. It is related to the French Pyrenean sequences. Main sites are Cau le Goges, Reclau Viver and L'Arbreda.

In the region of Madrid there were some findings attributed to Solutrean that are today missing.

Late Upper Paleolithic

This phase is defined by the Magdalenian culture, even if in the Mediterranean area the Gravettian influence is still persistent. The Magdalenian, also spelled Magdalénien refers to one of the later cultures of the Upper Palaeolithic in Western Europe.

In the Cantabrian area, the early Magdalenian phases show two different facies: the "Castillo facies" evolves locally over final Solutrean layers, while the "Rascaño facies" appears in most cases directly over the natural soil (no earlier occupations of these sites). The Franco-Cantabrian region (also Franco-Cantabric region) is a term applied in Archaeology and History to refer to an area that stretches from

In the second phase, the lower evolved Magdalenian, there are also two facies but now with a geographical divide: the "El Juyo facies" is found in Asturias and Cantabria, while the "Basque Country facies" is only found in this region.

The dates for this early Magdalenian period oscillate between 16,433 BP for Rascaño cave (Rascaño facies), 15,988 and 15,179 BP for the same cave (El Juyo facies) and 15,000 BP for Altamira (Castillo facies). For the Basque Country facies the cave of abauntz has given 15,800 BP. ^[1]

The middle Magdalenian shows less abundance of findings.

The upper Magdalenian is closely related to that of southern France (Magdalenian V and VI), being characterized by the presence of harpoons. Again there are two facies (called A and B) that appear geographically interwined, though the facies A (dates: 15,400–13,870 BP) is absent in the Basque Country and the facies B (dates 12,869–12,282 BP) is rare in Asturias.

In Portugal there have been some findings of the upper Magdalenian north of Lisbon (Casa da Moura, Lapa do Suão). Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. A possible intermediate site is La Dehesa (Salamanca, Spain), that is clearly associated with that of the Cantabrian area. Salamanca is a province of western Spain, in the western part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.

In the Mediterranean area, Catalonia again is directly connected with the French sequence, at least in the late phases. Instead the rest of the region shows a unique local evolution known as Parpallense.

The sometimes called Parpalló "Magdalenian" (extended by all the south-east) is actually a continuity of the local Gravetto-Solutrean. Only the late upper Magdlenian actually includes true elements of this culture, like proto-harpoons. Radicarbon dates for this phase are of c. 11,470 BP (Borran Gran). Other sites give later dates that actually approach the Epi-Paleolithic^[1].

Paleolithic art

Together with France, the Iberian peninsula is one of the prime areas of Paleolithic cave paintings. Cave paintings are Paintings on Cave walls and ceilings and the term is used especially for those dating to Prehistoric times This artistic manifestation is found most importantly in the northern Cantabrian area, where the earliest manifestations (Castillo, El Conde) are as old as Aurignacian times, even if rare.

The practice of this mural art increases in frequency in the Solutrean period, when the first animals are drawn, but it is not until the Magdalenian cultural phase when it becomes truly widespread, being found in almost every cave.

Most of the representations are of animals (bison, horse, deer, bull, reindeer, goat, bear, mammoth, moose) and are painted in ochre and black colors but there are exceptions and human-like forms as well as abstract drawings also appear in some sites.

In the Mediterranean and interior areas, the presence of mural art is not so abundant but exists as well since the Solutrean.

Also, several examples of open-air art exist, such as the monumental Côa Valley (Portugal), Domingo García and Siega Verde (both in Spain). The Côa Valley Paleolithic Art site is one of the largest known open air sites of Paleolithic art. Domingo García is a municipality located in the province of Segovia, Castile and León, Spain.

Archaeogenetics

Around 40,000 BC the first large settlement of Europe by modern humans, nomadic hunter-gathereres came from the steppes of Central Asia, characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome, defining them as an haplogroup R population. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism The Y chromosome is the sex-determining Chromosome in most Mammals including Humans In mammals it contains the gene SRY, which triggers In the study of Molecular evolution, a haplogroup, from "ἁπλο-" (Greek haplo-: simple or single + "group" is a group of similar Haplotypes In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology When the last ice age reached its maximum extent, these modern humans took refuge in Southern Europe, namely in Iberia, and in the steppes of southern Ukraine and Russia. The term Southern Europe can have four definitions geographical political climatic phytogeographic Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending

From around 32,000 to 21,000 BC the modern human Aurignacian culture dominated Europe. Aurignacian is the name of a culture of the Upper Palaeolithic located in Europe and southwest Asia. Around 30,000 BC a new wave of modern humans made their way from Southern France into the Iberian peninsula. Southern France (or the South of France) colloquially known as Le Midi, is a loosely defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that Here, this genetically homogenous population (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome), developed the M343 mutation, giving rise to the R1b Haplogroup, still dominant in modern Portuguese and Spanish populations. Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism The Y chromosome is the sex-determining Chromosome in most Mammals including Humans In mammals it contains the gene SRY, which triggers In Human genetics, Haplogroup R1b is the most frequent Y-chromosome Haplogroup in Western Europe In Human genetics, Haplogroup R1b is the most frequent Y-chromosome Haplogroup in Western Europe In the study of Molecular evolution, a haplogroup, from "ἁπλο-" (Greek haplo-: simple or single + "group" is a group of similar Haplotypes The Portuguese people (os Portugueses literally the Portuguese) are the Ethnic group or Nation native to the country of Portugal, in the west Around 28,000 BC the Gravettian culture began to succeed the Aurignacian. The Gravettian was an industry of the European Upper Palaeolithic.

Epipaleolithic

Around 10,000 BC an interstadial deglaciation called the Allerød Oscillation occurred, weakening the rigorous conditions of the last ice age. "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. The Allerød period is a part of a temperature oscillation toward the end of the last Glaciation, during which temperatures in the northern Atlantic region rose from "Last glacial" redirects here For the period of maximum glacier extent during this time see Last Glacial Maximum The last glacial period This climatic change also represents the end of the Upper Palaeolithic period, beginning the Epipaleolithic. The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the

As the climate became warmer, the late Magdalenian peoples of Iberia modified their technology and culture. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of The main techno-cultural change is the process of microlithization: the reduction of size of stone and bone tools, also found in other parts of the World. A microlith is a small stone tool typically knapped of Flint or Chert, usually about three centimetres long or less They are typically one Centimetre Also the cave sanctuaries seem to be abandoned and art becomes rarer and mostly done on portable objects, such as peebles or tools.

It also implies changes in diet, as the megafauna virtually disappears when the steppe becomes woodlands. Megafauna are species of large Animals ( Greek μεγας large + modern Latin fauna animal In this period, hunted animals are of smaller size, typically deer or wild goats, and seafood becomes an important part of the diet where available.

Azilian

The first Epipaleolithic culture is the Azilian, also known as microlaminar microlithism in the Mediterranean. The Azilian is a name given by Archaeologists to an industry of the Epipaleolithic in northern Spain and southern France. This culture is the local evolution of Magdalenian, parallel to other regional derivatives found in Central and Northern Europe. Original from the Franco-Cantabrian region, it eventually expands to Mediterranean Iberia as well. The Franco-Cantabrian region (also Franco-Cantabric region) is a term applied in Archaeology and History to refer to an area that stretches from

An archetypical Azilian site in the Iberian peninsula is Zatoya (Navarre), where it is difficult to discern the early Azilian elements from those of late Magdalenian (this transition dated to 11,760 BP^[1]). Full Azilian in the same site is dated to 8,150 BP, followed by appearance of geometric elements at a later date, that continue until the arrival of pottery (subneolithic stage). The term subneolithic is used in archaeological contexts to refer to peoples that while being in contact with Neolithic (farmer groups remain attached to their

In the Mediterranean area, virtually this same material culture is often named microlaminar microlithism because it lacks of the bone industry typical of Franco-Cantabrian Azilian. It is found in parts of Catalonia, Lands of Valencia and Murcia and Mediterranean Andalusia. It has been dated in Les Mallaetes at 10,370 BP. ^[1]

Geometrical microlithism

In the late phases of the Epipaleolithic a new trend arrives from the north: the geometrical microlithism, directly related to Sauveterrian and Tardenoisian cultures of the Rhin-Danube region. The Sauveterrian is the name for an Archaeological culture of the European Epipaleolithic which flourished around 7000-8000 years BC The Tardenoisian is an Archaeological culture of the Epipaleolithic period from north-western France and Belgium. The Rhin is a 125 km long River in Brandenburg, Germany, right tributary to the river Havel. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj

While in the Franco-Cantabrian region it has a minor impact, not altering the Azilian culture substantially, in Mediterranean Iberia and Portugal its arrival is more noticeable. The Mediterranean geometrical microlithism has two facies:

• The Filador facies is directly related to French Sauveterrian and is found in Catalonia, north of the Ebro river.
• The Cocina facies is more widespread and, in many sites (Málaga, Spain), shows a strong dependence of fishing and seafood gathering. The Province of Málaga ( Spanish Provincia de Málaga) is located on the southern coast of Spain, in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia The Portuguese sites (south of the Tagus, Muge group) have given dates of c. 7350 . ^[1]

Asturian

An rather mysterious exception to generalized microlithism is the so called Asturian culture, actually identified by a single fossil: the Asturian pick-axe, and found only in coastal locations, specially in Eastern Asturias and Western Cantabria. A pickaxe is a Hand tool with a hard head attached Perpendicular to the handle The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Cantabria is a Spanish province and Autonomous community with Santander as its capital city It is believed that the Asturian tool was used for seafood gathering.

Neolithic

In the sixth millennium BC Andalusia experiences the arrival of the first agriculturalists. During the 6th millennium BC, Agriculture spreads from the Balkans to Italy and Eastern Europe and from Mesopotamia to Egypt. Andalusia (Andalucía is an autonomous community of Spain. It is the most populous and the second largest in terms of land area Their origin is uncertain (though North Africa is a serious candidate) but they arrive with already developed crops (cereals and legumes). A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants The presence of domestic animals instead is unlikely, as only pig and rabbit remains have been found and these could belong to wild animals. Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times Rabbits are small Mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world They also consumed large amounts of olives but it's uncertain too whether this tree was cultivated or merely harvested in its wild form. The Olive ( Olea europaea) is a Species of small Tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern Their typical fossil is the La Almagra style pottery, quite variegated^[1].

The Andalusian Neolithic also influenced other areas, notably Southern Portugal, where, soon after neolithization, the first dolmen tombs begin to be built c. A dolmen (also known as cromlech, anta, Hünengrab, Hunebed, Goindol, quoit, and portal dolmen) is a type of 4800 BC, being possibly the oldest of their kind anywhere^[1]. The 5th millennium BC saw the spread of Agriculture from the Near East throughout southern and central Europe

C. 4700 BC Cardium Pottery Neolithic culture (also known as Mediterranean Neolithic) arrives to Eastern Iberia. The 5th millennium BC saw the spread of Agriculture from the Near East throughout southern and central Europe Cardium Pottery, Printed-Cardium Pottery or Cardial Ware is a Neolithic decorative style that gets its name from the imprinting of the clay with the While some remains of this culture have been found as far west as Portugal, its distribution is basically Mediterranean (Catalonia, Valencian region, Ebro valley, Balearic islands).

The interior and the northern coastal areas remain largely marginal in this process of spread of agriculture. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture In most cases it would only arrive in a very late phase or even already in the Chalcolithic age, together with Megalithism.

Chalcolithic

The Chalcolithic or Copper Age is the earliest phase of metallurgy. The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their Copper, silver and gold started to be worked then, though these soft metals could hardly replace stone tools for most purposes. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 The Chalcolithic is also a period of increased social complexity and stratification and, in the case of Iberia, that of the rise of the first civilizations and of extense exchange networks that would reach to the Baltic and Africa. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude.

The conventional date for the beginning of Chalcolithic in Iberia is c. 3000 BC. The 30th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 3000 BC to 2901 BC In the following centuries, specially in the south of the peninsula, metal goods, often decorative or ritual, become increasingly common. Additionally there is an increased evidence of exchanges with areas far away: ambar from the Baltic and ivory and ostrich-egg products from Northern Africa^[1]. The American Business Association of Russian Professionals (AmBAR is a Non-profit organization founded to support the Russian-speaking professional community in the United States Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, The Ostrich ( Struthio camelus) is a large Flightless bird native to Africa (and formerly the Middle East) North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan

It is also the period of the great expansion of Megalithism, with its associated collective burial practices. In the early Chalcolithic period this cultural phenomenon, maybe of religious undertones, expands along the Atlantic regions and also through the south of the peninsula (additionally it's also found in virtually all European Atlantic regions). In contrast, most of the interior and the Mediterranean regions remain refractary to this phenomenon.

Another phenomenon found in the early chalcolithic is the development of new types of funerary monuments: tholoi and artificial caves. As a generic term tholos tomb is an alternative name for a Beehive tomb from the late Bronze Age. These are only found in the more developed areas: southern Iberia, from the Tagus estuary to Almería, and SE France. The Tagus ( Latin Tagus, Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, pron. Almería is a province of southern Spain. It is bordered by the provinces of Granada, Murcia, and the Mediterranean Sea.

Eventually, c. 2600 BC, urban communities began to appear, again specially in the south. The 26th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2600 BC to 2501 BC The most important ones are Los Millares in SE Spain and Zambujal (belonging to Vila Nova de São Pedro culture) in Portuguese Estremadura, that can well be called civilizations, even if they lack of the literary component. Los Millares is the name of a Chalcolithic occupation site 17km north of Almería, in the municipality of Santa Fe de Mondújar, Andalusia Vila Nova de São Pedro is the name of an archaeological site in Portuguese Estremadura where thousands of arrowheads were found inside a fortified site Estremadura ((ɨʃtɾɨmɐˈðuɾɐ is a historical Province of Portugal. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements

It is very unclear if any cultural influence originated in the Eastern Mediterranean (Cyprus?) could have sparked these civilizations. Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía On one side the tholos does have a precedent in that area (even if not used yet as tomb) but on the other there is no material evidence of any exchange between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean, in contrast with the abundance of goods imported from Northern Europe and Africa^[1].

Since c. 2150 BC, the Bell Beaker culture intrudes in Chalcolithic Iberia. The Bell-Beaker culture (sometimes shortened to Beaker culture, Beaker people, or Beaker folk; Glockenbecherkultur) ca After the early Corded style beaker, of quite clear Central European origin, the peninsula begins producing its own types of Bell Beaker pottery. Most important is the Maritime or International style that, associated specially with Megalithism, is for some centuries abundant in all the peninsula and southern France.

Since c. 1900, the Bell Beaker phenomenon in Iberia shows a regionalization, with different styles being produced in the various regions: Palmela type in Portugal, Continental type in the plateau and Almerian type in Los Millares, among others^[1].

Like in other parts of Europe, the Bell Beaker phenomenon (speculated to be of trading or maybe religious nature) does not significantly alter the cultures it inserts itself in. Instead the cultural contexts that existed previously continue basically unchanged by its presence.

Bronze Age

Early Bronze

The center of Bronze Age technology is in the southeast since c. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for 1800 BC^[1]. The 18th century BC was the Century which lasted from 1800 BC to 1701 BC There the civilization of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar, initially with no other discontinuity than the displacement of the main urban center some kilometers to the north, the gradual appearance of true bronze and arsenical bronze tools and some greater geographical extension. El Argar is the Type site of an Early Bronze Age culture called the Argaric culture, which flourished from the town of Antas, Almería Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Arsenical bronze (or arsenical copper) is an Alloy in which Arsenic is added to Copper as opposed to or in addition to other constituent The Argarian people lived in rather large fortified towns or cities.

From this center, bronze technology spread to other areas. Most notable are:

• Bronze of Levante: in the Land of Valencia. Bronze of Levante (Bronce de Levante is the name of the proto-Iberian culture extending approximately by the Land of Valencia in the 2nd millennium BCE The Valencian Community ( Valencian and official Comunitat Valenciana; Comunidad Valenciana is an Autonomous community located in central to Their towns were smaller and show intense interation with their neighbours of El Argar.
• South-Western Iberian Bronze: in southern Portugal and SW Spain. The South-Western Iberian Bronze is a poorly defined Bronze Age culture of Southern Portugal and nearby areas of SW Spain ( Huelva, These poorly defined archaeological horizons show the presence of bronze daggers and an expansive trend in northwards direction. A dagger (from Vulgar Latin: 'daca' - a Dacian Knife) is a typically double-edged blade used for Stabbing or thrusting
• Cogotas I culture (Cogotas II is Iron Age Celtic): the pastoralist peoples of the plateau become for the first time culturally unified. Pastoralism or pastoral farming is the branch of Agriculture concerned with the raising of Livestock. Their typical fossil is a rough troncoconic pottery.

Some areas like the civilization of Vila Nova seem to have remained apart from the spread of bronze metallurgy remaining technically in the Chalcolithic period for centuries.

Middle Bronze

This period is basically a continuation of he previous one. The most noticeable change happens in El Argar civilization, that adopts the Aegean custom of burial in pithos^[1]. Pithos (plural pithoi) is the ancient Greek word ( πίθος, πίθοι) for a large storage jar of a characteristic shape This phase is known as El Argar B, beginning c. 1500 BC.

In the North-West (Galicia and northern Portugal), a region that held some of the largest reserves of tin (needed to make true bronze) in Western Eurasia became a focus for mining, incorporating then the bronze technology. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Their typical fossil are bronze axes (Group of Montelavar).

The semi-desertic region of La Mancha shows its first signs of colonization with the fortified scheme of the Motillas (hillforts). La Mancha is an arid fertile elevated plateau (610 m or 2000 ft The Motillas were the first attested settlement of La Mancha ( Spain) which took place in the Middle Bronze Age by people belonging to the culture of This group is clearly related to the Bronze of Levante, showing the same material culture^[1].

Late Bronze

C. 1300 BC several major changes happen in Iberia, among them:

• The Chalcolithic culture of Vila Nova vanishes, possibly in direct relation to the silting of the canal connecting the main city Zambujal with the sea ^[2]. It is replaced by a non-urban culture, whose main fossil is an externally burnished pottery.
• El Argar also disappears as such, what had been a vey homogeneous culture, a centralized state for some, becomes an array of many post-Argaric fortified cities.
• The Motillas are abandoned.
• The proto-Celtic Urnfield culture appears in the North-East, conquering all Catalonia and some neighbouring areas. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Urnfield culture (c 1300 BC - 750 BC) was a late Bronze Age culture of central Europe.
• The Lower Guadalquivir valley shows its first clearly differentiated culture, defined by internally burnished pottery. The Guadalquivir is the fifth longest River in Spain (after the Tagus, Ebro, Duero and Guadiana) and the longest in This group might have some relation with the semi-historical, yet-to-be-found, Tartessos. Tartessos (also Tartessus) was a harbor city and its surrounding culture on the south coast of the
• Western Iberian Bronze cultures show some degree of interaction, not just among them but also with other Atlantic cultures in Britain, France and elsewhere. This has been called the Atlantic Bronze complex^[1]. The so called Atlantic Bronze Age is a cultural complex of the approx

Iron Age

The Iron Age in the Iberian peninsula has two focus: the Hallstatt-related Iron Age Urnfields of the North-East and the Phoenician colonies of the South. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man.

Indo-European (Celtic) expansion

Since the late eighth century BC, the Urnfield culture of North-East Iberia begins to incorporate Iron metallurgy and, eventually, elements of the Hallstatt culture. The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. The Urnfield culture (c 1300 BC - 750 BC) was a late Bronze Age culture of central Europe. The Hallstatt culture was the predominant In this period it experiences a clear expansion mainly oriented upstream along the Ebro river, arriving to La Rioja and (in a hybrid local form) also to Alava, but also southwards into Castelló, with less marked influences arriving further south. La Rioja is a province and autonomous community of northern Spain. Álava (Araba is a province of northern Spain in the southern part of the autonomous community of the Basque Country. Castellón ( Spanish) or Castelló ( Valencian / Catalan) is a province in the northern part of the Valencian Community, Some offshots are also detected along the Iberian mountains, in what can be a prelude of the formation of the Celtiberi^[1]. The Celtiberians (or Celt-Iberians were a Celtic people of Hallstatt culture

In this period the social differentiation is more visible and there is also evidence of the existence of local chiefdoms and a horse-riding elite. It is possible that these transformations represent the arrival of new waves from Central Europe.

From these outposts in the Upper Ebro and the Iberian mountains, the Celtic culture expanded into the plateau and the Atlantic coast. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Several groups can be described^[1]:

• The Bernorio-Miraveche group (northern Burgos and Palencia provinces), that would influence the peoples of the northern fringe. Burgos is a province of northern Spain, in the northeastern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León. Palencia is a province of northern Spain, in the northern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.
• The Duero group, probable precursor of the Vaccei. The Vaccaei were an ancient tribe who settled in the Meseta Central of northern Hispania.
• The Cogotas II culture, likely precursor of the Vettones, of marked cattle-herder nature, that would gradually expand southwards into Extremadura. The Vettones were one of the pre- Roman Celtic peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman Hispania, modern Spain and Portugal
• The Lusitanian Castros group, in Central Portugal, precursor of the Lusitani. The Lusitanians (or Lusitani in Latin) were an Indo-European people living in the western Iberian Peninsula long before it became the Roman
• The North-West Castros culture, in Northern Portugal and Galicia, related to the previous one but with strong peculiarities due to the clear persistence of the Atlantic Bronze substrate.

All these Indo-European groups have some common elements, like combed pottery since the 6th century and uniform weaponry.

Since c. 600 BC the Urnifields of the North-East are replaced by the Iberian culture, in a process that won't be completed until the fourth century BC^[1]. This physical separation from their continental relatives would mean that the Celts of the Iberian peninsula never received the cultural influences of La Tène culture, including Druidism. The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies

Phoenician colonization and influence

The Phoenicians of Asia, Greeks of Europe, and Carthaginians of Africa all colonized parts of Iberia to facilitate trade. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers During the tenth century BC the first contacts between Phoenicians and Iberia (along the Mediterranean coast) were made. This century also saw the emergence of towns and cities in the southern littoral areas of eastern Iberia. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status

The Phoenicians founded colony of Gadir (modern Cádiz) near Tartessos. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight The foundation of Cádiz, the oldest continuously-inhabited city in western Europe, is traditionally dated to 1104 BC, although, as of 2004, no archaeological discoveries date back further than the ninth century BC. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos The Phoenicians continued to use Cádiz as a trading post for several centuries leaving a variety of artifacts, most notably a pair of sarcophaguses from around the fourth or third centuries BC Contrary to myth, there is no record of Phoenician colonies west of the Algarve (namely Tavira), even though there might have been some voyages of discovery. The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal. Tavira or Tabira is another name for Durango Spain. Tavira ( pron Phoenician influence in what is now Portuguese territory was essentially through cultural and commercial exchange with Tartessos. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.

During the ninth century BC the Phoenicians (from the city-state of Tyre founded the colony of Carthage (in North Africa). Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan During this century Phoenicians also had great influence on Iberia with the introduction the use of Iron, of the Potter's wheel, the production of Olive oil and Wine. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 In Pottery, a potter's wheel is a machine used in the shaping of round ceramic wares Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice They were also responsible for the first forms of Iberian writing, had great religious influence and accelerated urban development. However, there is little evidence to support the myth of a Phoenician foundation of the city of Lisbon as far back as 1300 BC, under the name Alis Ubbo ("Safe Harbour"), even if in this period there are organized settlements in Olissipona (modern Lisbon, in Portuguese Estremadura) with clear Mediterranean influences. Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Estremadura ((ɨʃtɾɨmɐˈðuɾɐ is a historical Province of Portugal.

There was strong Phoenician influence and settlement in the city of Balsa (modern Tavira in the Algarve) in the eighth century BC. Tavira or Tabira is another name for Durango Spain. Tavira ( pron The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal. The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. Phoenician influenced Tavira was destroyed by violence in the sixth century BC. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. With the decadence of Phoenician colonization of the Mediterranean coast of Iberia in the sixth century BC many of the colonies are deserted. The sixth century BC also saw the rise of the colonial might of Carthage, which slowly replaced the Phoenicians in their former areas of dominion. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers

Greek colonization

The Greek colony at what now is Marseilles began trading with the Celtiberians on the eastern coast around the eighth century BC. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ The Greeks finally founded their own colony at Ampurias, in the eastern Mediterranean shore (modern Catalonia), during the sixth century BC beginning their settlement in the Iberian peninsula. Empúries ( Catalan name in Spanish: Ampurias) is a town on the Mediterranean coast of the Catalan comarca of Alt Empordà (Spain Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. There are no Greek colonies west of the Strait of Gibraltar, only voyages of discovery. The Strait of Gibraltar ( Arabic: مضيق جبل طارق Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar) is the Strait that connects the Atlantic There is no evidence to support the myth of an ancient Greek founding of Olissipo (modern Lisbon) by Odysseus. Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs

The Tartessian-Orientalizing culture

The name Tartessian, when applied in archaeology and linguistics does not necessarily correlate with the semi-mythical city of Tartessos but only roughly with the area where it is typically assumed it should have been located. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Tartessos (also Tartessus) was a harbor city and its surrounding culture on the south coast of the

The Tartessian-Orientalizing culture of southern Iberia actually is the local culture as modified by the increasing influence of Eastern elements, specially Phoenician. Its core area is Western Andalusia, but soon extends to Eastern Andalusia, Extremadura and the Lands of Murcia and Valencia, where a Proto-Orientalizing Tartessian complex, rooted in the local Bronze cultures, can already be defined in the last stages of the Bronze Age (ninth-eighth centuries BC), before Phoenician influences can be determined clearly.

The full Tartessian-Orientalizing culture, beginning c. 720 BC, also extends to Southern Portugal, where is eventually replaced by Lusitanian culture. One of the most significant elements of this culture is the introduction of the potter's wheel, what, along with other related technical developments, causes a major improvement in the quality of the pottery produced. In Pottery, a potter's wheel is a machine used in the shaping of round ceramic wares There are other major advances in craftsmanship, affecting jewelry, weaving and architecture^[1]. Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones This article describes textile weaving For other senses of this word see Weaving (disambiguation. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation This latter aspects is specially important, as the traditional circular huts were then gradually replaced by well finished rectangular buildings. It also allowed for the construction of the tower-like burial monuments that are so typical of this culture.

Agriculture also seems to have experienced major advances with the introduction of steel tools and, presumably, of the yoke and animal traction for the plough. A yoke is a wooden beam which is used between a pair of Oxen to allow them to pull a load (oxen almost always work in pairs The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed In this period it's noticeable the increase of bovine cattle accompanied by some decrease of ovine and caprine types^[1]. Oxen (singular ox) are Cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult castrated males The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe

Another noticeable element is the major increase in economical specialization and social stratification. This is very noticeable in burials, with some showing off great wealth (chariots, gold, ivory), while the vast majority are much more modest. There is much diversity in burial rituals in this period but the elites seem to converge in one single style: a chambered mound. Some of the most affluent burials are generally attributed to local monarchs.

One of the developments of this period is writing. Nevertheless the many inscriptions in Tartessian script remain so far undeciphered. The southwest script or southwestern script, also known as Tartessian or South Lusitanian is a paleohispanic script that was the mean of written

The Iberian culture

In the Iberian culture people were organized in chiefdoms and states. Three phases can be identified: the Ancient, the Middle and the Late Iberian period.

With the arrival of Greek influences, not limited to their few colonies, the Tartessian-Orientalizing culture begins to transform itself, specially in the South East. This late period is known as the Iberian culture, that in Western Andalusia and the non-Celtic areas of Extremadura is called Ibero-Turdetanian because of its stronger links with the Tartessian substrate.

The Hellenic influence is visible in the gradual change of the style of monuments that approach more and more the models arrived from the Greek world^[1]. Thus the obelisk-like funerary monuments of the previous period now adopt a column like form, totally in line with Greek architecture.

By the middle of the fifth century aristocratic power was increased and resulted in the abandonment and transformation of the orientalizing model. The oppidium appeared and became the socio-economic model of the aristocratic class. The commerce was also one of the principal sources of aristocratic control and power. In the south east, between the end of the fifth and the end of the fourth century BC, appeared a highly hierarchical aristocratic society. There were different forms of political control. The power and control seemed to be in the hand of kings or reguli.

Iberian funerary customs are dominated by cremation necropolis, that are partly due to the persistent influences of Urnfield culture, but they also include burial customs imported from the Greek cultural area (mudbrick rectangular mound)^[1]. Cremation is the act of reducing a Corpse by burning, generally in a crematorium furnace or crematory fire

Urbanism was important in the Iberian cultural area, specially in the south, where Roman accounts mention hundreds of oppida (fortified towns). In these towns (some quite large, some mere fortified villages) the houses were typically arranged in contiguous blocks, in what seems to be another Urnfield cultural influx.

The Iberian script evolves from the Tartessian one with Greek influences that are noticeable in the transformation of some characters. The Iberian scripts are the Paleohispanic scripts that were used to represent the extinct Iberian language. In a few cases a variant of Greek alphabet (Ibero-Ionian script) was used to write Iberian as well. The Greek alphabet (Ελληνικό αλφάβητο is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early The Iberian language was the language of a people identified by Greek and Roman sources who lived in the eastern and southeastern regions of the Iberian

The transformation from Tartessian to Iberian culture was not sudden but gradual and was more marked in the East, where it begins in the 6th century, than in the South-West, where it is only noticeable since the fifth century BC and much more tenuous. A special case is the North-East where the Urnfield culture was Iberized but keeping some elements from the Indo-European substrate^[1].

Portuguese Iron Age

Also during the sixth century BC there was a cultural shift in southern Portuguese territory after the fall of Tartessos, with a strong Mediterranean character that prolonged and modified Tartessian culture. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. This occurred mainly in Low Alentejo and the Algarve, but had littoral extensions up to the Tagus mouth (namely the important city of Bevipo, modern Alcácer do Sal). Alentejo (ɐlẽˈtɛʒu is a south-central region of Portugal. The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal. The Tagus ( Latin Tagus, Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, pron. Alcácer do Sal - pron aɫ'kasɛɾ du saɫ is a municipality in Portugal, located in the district of Setúbal. The first form of writing in western Iberia (south of Portugal), the Southwest script (still to be translated), dated to the sixth century BC, denotes strong Tartessian influence in its use of a modified Phoenician alphabet. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The southwest script or southwestern script, also known as Tartessian or South Lusitanian is a paleohispanic script that was the mean of written The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC In this writings the word Conii (similar to Cunetes or Cynetes, the people of the Algarve) appears frequently. The Cynetes or Conii were a one of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, living in today's Algarve and Low Alentejo regions of southern The Cynetes or Conii were a one of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, living in today's Algarve and Low Alentejo regions of southern The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal.

The poem Ora Maritima, written by Avienus in the fourth century AD and based on the Massaliote Periplus of the sixth century BC, states that all of western Iberia was once called for the name of its people, the Oestriminis, which were replaced by an invasion of the Saephe or Ophis (meaning Serpent). Avienus was a Latin writer of the 4th century His full name Postumius Rufius Festus (qui et Avien(ius is mentioned on an inscription from Bulla Regia Avienus was a Latin writer of the 4th century His full name Postumius Rufius Festus (qui et Avien(ius is mentioned on an inscription from Bulla Regia As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini / Common era) was that Century The Massaliote Periplus or Massaliot Periplus is the name of a now-lost merchants' handbook possibly dating to as early as the sixth century BC describing The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. In Latin poetry Oestreminis ("Extreme West" was a name given to the territory of what is today modern Portugal, comparable to Finis terrae, the From then on western Iberia would have been know as Ophiussa (Land of the Serpents). Ophiussa, also spelled Ophiusa, is the ancient name given by the ancient Greeks to what is now Portuguese territory The poem probably translates the impact of the Second wave of Indo-European migrations (Celtic) in the seventh century BC. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC. The poem also describes the various ethnic groups the present at that time:

• The Saephe or Ophis, today seen as probably Hallstatt culture Celts, in all of western Iberia (modern Portugal) between the Douro and the Sado rivers. The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Douro or Duero ( Latin: Durius, Spanish: Duero, Portuguese: Douro, pron. The Sado River ( pron. 'saðu is a River in Southern Portugal, and is one of the major rivers in the country
• The Cempsi, probably Hallstatt culture Celts, in the Tagus mouth and the south up to the Algarve. The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Tagus ( Latin Tagus, Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, pron. The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal.
• The Cynetes in the extreme south and some cities along the Atlantic coast (such as Olissipo, modern Lisbon), probably not Indo-European, but autochthonous Iberian of Tartessian background (even if strongly or totally celticized over the next centuries).
• The Dragani, Celt or Proto-Celt of the first Indo-European wave, in the mountainous areas of Galicia, northern Portugal, Asturias and Cantabria. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Cantabria is a Spanish province and Autonomous community with Santander as its capital city
• The Lusis, probably a first reference to the Lusitanians, similar to the Dragani (Celt or Proto-Celt of the first Indo-European wave). The Lusitanians (or Lusitani in Latin) were an Indo-European people living in the western Iberian Peninsula long before it became the Roman Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts

The fifth century BC saw the urban bloom of Tartessian influenced Tavira, further development of strong Central European (Celtic) influences and migrations in western Iberia north of the Tagus river and the development of a second Castro Village culture in Galicia and northern Portugal. The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Tagus ( Latin Tagus, Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, pron. A hill fort is a fortified refuge or defended settlement Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Minting of coins and use of money in the Iberian peninsula dates back to the fifth century BC. A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures Coins for Currency. main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts. During this century discovery voyages to the Atlantic are made by the Carthaginians. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus cites the word Iberia to designate what is now the Iberian peninsula, according to ancient Greek costume. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra

In the fourth century BC the Celtici, a new wave of Celtic migration (of the La Tène culture), enter Iberia going as far as modern-day Portuguese territory and settle in the Alentejo also penetrating in the Algarve. The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. The Celtici were a Celtic tribe of the Iberian peninsula, akin either to the Lusitanians and Gallaecians or the Celtiberians, living The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site Alentejo (ɐlẽˈtɛʒu is a south-central region of Portugal. The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal. The Turduli and Turdetani, probably descendants of the Tartessians, although celticized, became established in the area of the Guadiana river, in the south of modern Portugal. The Turduli were an ancient Celtiberian tribe of Lusitania, akin to the Lusitanians, living in the south of modern Portugal,in the east of the The Turdetani were an ancient (pre- Roman) people of the Iberian peninsula (the Roman Hispania) living in the valley of the Guadalquivir in what Guadiana (Wadi Ana Anas Guadiana Guadiana pron. gwɐdi'ɐnɐ or Odiana) is one of the major Rivers of Spain and Portugal A series of cities in the Algarve, such as Balsa (Tavira), Baesuris (Castro Marim), Ossonoba(Faro) and Cilpes (Silves), became inhabited by the Cynetes progressively mingled with Celtic populations. Castro Marim ( pron 'kaʃtɾu mɐ'ɾĩ is a town and a municipality in the southern region of Algarve, in Portugal. Faro (ˈfaɾu is a city and municipality in southern Portugal. Silves ( pron 'siɫvɨʃ is a town and a municipality in the Algarve, southern Portugal. The Cynetes or Conii were a one of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, living in today's Algarve and Low Alentejo regions of southern The Lusitanians (most probably proto-Celt) beagan to inhabit the area between the Douro and the Tagus rivers (and progressively penetrate the High Alentejo). The Lusitanians (or Lusitani in Latin) were an Indo-European people living in the western Iberian Peninsula long before it became the Roman The Douro or Duero ( Latin: Durius, Spanish: Duero, Portuguese: Douro, pron. The Tagus ( Latin Tagus, Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, pron. They are neighbored to the east by the Vettones (also probably proto-Celt). The Vettones were one of the pre- Roman Celtic peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman Hispania, modern Spain and Portugal The Celtic Calaicians or Gallaeci inhabit all the region above the Douro river (modern Galicia and northern Portugal). Gallaecia or Callaecia was the name of a Roman province that comprised

Arrival of Romans and Punic Wars

During the fourth century BC Rome began to rise as a Mediterranean power rival to Africa-based Carthage. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers After their defeat to Rome in the First Punic War (264–241 BC), the Carthaginians began to extend their conquest of Iberia to expand their empire further into Europe. The First Punic War ( 264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. Events By place Greece Abantidas, the son of Paseas, becomes Tyrant of the Greek city-state of Sicyon after Events By place Greece The Eurypontid King of Sparta, Agis IV, is called away from Sparta when Aratus of Sicyon In the Second Punic War (218–202 BC), Hannibal marched his armies, which included Iberians, from Africa through Iberia to cross the Alps and attack the Romans in Italy. The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western Events By place Carthage A Carthaginian army under Hannibal attacks Rome's Spanish allies Events By place Carthage Accused of treason by the Carthaginians after being defeated by the Romans at the Battle of the Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Carthage was again defeated and lost Iberia. Rome began its conquest and occupation of the peninsula, thus beginning the era of Hispania. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar

Footnotes

References

• Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds. ), e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, Center for Celtic Studies, 2005.
• Cerdá, F. Jordá et al. , History of Spain 1: Prehistory, Gredos, 1986. ISBN 84-249-1015-X
• Mattoso, José (dir. Jose João da Conceição Gonçalves Mattoso ( Leiria, 1933 is a Portuguese medievalist historian and university teacher ), História de Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes de Portugal, Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores, 1992. (in Portuguese)
• The concept of Atlantic Bronze Age in the framework of 20th century archeological thinking - in Portuguese, English and French

See also

• Timeline of Portuguese history
  • Pre-Roman Western Iberia (Before the third century BC)
• Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula

External links

• Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)
• American Museum of Natural History - Atapuerca
• Country Studies: Spain - Iberia

Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. This is a historical timeline of Portugal. See also History of Portugal Pre-Roman Western Iberia (Before the 3rd century BC This is a historical timeline of Portugal. See also History of Portugal Pre-Roman Western Iberia Paleolithic This is a list of the Pre- Roman peoples of the Iberian peninsula (the Roman Hispania - modern Andorra, Portugal and Spain

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