This article is part of the series History of Czechoslovakia
Origins (to 1918)
First Republic (1918–1938)
Second Republic and World War II (1938–1945)
Third Republic (1945–1948)
Communist Era (1948–1989)
Velvet Revolution and Democracy (1989–1992)
Dissolution of Czechoslovakia January 1, 1993

The Prague Spring (Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. With the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy at the end of World War I, the independent country of Czechoslovakia ( Slovak: Česko-Slovensko Czech The creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918 was the culmination of the long struggle of the Czechs against their Austrian rulers and of the Slovaks against Hungarisation Independence The independence of Czechoslovakia was proclaimed on October 28, 1918, by the Czechoslovak National Following the Anschluss of Nazi Germany and Austria in March 1938 Nazi leader Adolf Hitler 's next target for annexation was Czechoslovakia During World War II, Czechoslovakia disappeared from the map of Europe. Stalinization (1948&ndash1963 Following the coup d'état of February 1948, when the Communists definitively took power in Czechoslovakia the country was declared a People's Velvet Revolution See also Velvet Revolution Background Although in March 1987 Gustáv Husák nominally committed Czechoslovakia The dissolution of Czechoslovakia, which took effect on January 1 1993, saw Czechoslovakia split into two separate countries the Czech Republic Czech (ˈʧɛk čeština ˈʧɛʃcɪna in Czech is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers it is the majority language in the The Slovak language ( slovenčina, slovenský jazyk, not to be confused with Slovenščina) sometimes referred to as "Slovakian" Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including It began on January 5, 1968, when reformist Alexander Dubček came to power, and continued until August 21, when the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies invaded the country to halt the reforms. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France. Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Alexander Dubček (November 27 1921 – November 7 1992 was a Slovak politician and briefly leader of Czechoslovakia (1968-1969 famous for his attempt to reform Events 1192 - Minamoto Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the De facto ruler of Japan. The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe. On the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, the Soviet Union and four of its Warsaw Pact allies invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist

The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization. Prague (ˈprɑːg Praha (ˈpraɦa see also other names) is the Capital and Largest city of the Czech Republic. Among the freedoms granted were a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech and travel. Freedom Constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to freedom of the press Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. Freedom of movement, mobility rights or the right to travel is a Human rights concept which is respected in the Constitutions of numerous Dubček also federalized the country into two separate republics; this was the only change that survived the end of the Prague Spring.

The reforms were not received well by the Soviets who, after failed negotiations, sent thousands of Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country. A large wave of emigration swept the nation. While there were many non-violent protests in the country, including the protest-suicide of a student, there was no military resistance. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until 1990.

After the invasion, Czechoslovakia entered a period of normalization: subsequent leaders attempted to restore the political and economic values that had prevailed before Dubček gained control of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ). In the History of Czechoslovakia, normalization is a name commonly given to the period 1969 to about 1987 The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, in Czech and in Slovak Komunistická strana Československa (KSČ was a political party in Czechoslovakia that existed between Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček and also became president, reversed almost all of Dubček's reforms. Gustáv Husák ( January 10, 1913 - November 18, 1991) was a Slovak politician president of Czechoslovakia and a long-term This is a list of Presidents of Czechoslovakia, both elected and acting The Prague Spring has become immortalized in music and literature such as the work of Karel Kryl and Milan Kundera's The Unbearable Lightness of Being. Karel Kryl ( April 12, 1944 &ndash March 3, 1994) was a popular Czech songwriter and performer of many Protest songs in Milan Kundera (ˈmɪlan ˈkundɛra (born April 1, 1929, in Brno, Czechoslovakia) is a French Writer of Czech The Unbearable Lightness of Being (Nesnesitelná lehkost bytí is a Novel written by Milan Kundera in 1982, first published in 1984

Background

Alexander Dubček

The process of destalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in the early 1960s, but had progressed slower than in most other socialist states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War ensued as the USSR and the United States struggled indirectly for influence around the world Antonín Novotný ( December 10, 1904 &ndash January 28, 1975) was President of Czechoslovakia from 1957 to 1968 and ruled as During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were ^[1] Following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev, Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism, and the new constitution,^[2] accordingly, adopted the name Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution The Constitution of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic ( Ústava Československé socialistické / Československej socialistickej republiky in Czech / Slovak promulgated on The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic ( Československá socialistická republika in Czech and Slovak) was the official name of Czechoslovakia The pace of change, however, was sluggish; the rehabilitation of Stalinist-era victims, such as those convicted in the Slánský trials, may have been considered as early as 1963, but did not take place until 1967. The Slánský trial (officially Proces s protistátním spikleneckým centrem Rudolfa Slánského meaning "Trial of anti-state conspiracy centered around Rudolf Slánský" ^[3] As the strict regime eased its rules, the Union of Czechoslovak Writers cautiously began to air discontent, and in the union's gazette, Literárni noviny, members suggested that literature should be independent of Party doctrine. ^[4]

In June 1967, a small fraction of the Czech writer's union sympathized with radical socialists, specifically Ludvík Vaculík, Milan Kundera, Jan Procházka, Antonín Jaroslav Liehm, Pavel Kohout and Ivan Klíma. Ludvík Vaculík ( July 23 1926 in Brumov) is a Czech Writer and Journalist. Milan Kundera (ˈmɪlan ˈkundɛra (born April 1, 1929, in Brno, Czechoslovakia) is a French Writer of Czech Pavel Kohout (born July 20 1928, Prague) is a Czech and Austrian novelist playwright and poet Ivan Klíma (born 14 September, 1931, Prague) is a Czech Novelist and Playwright. ^[4] A few months later, at a party meeting, it was decided that administrative actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken. Since only a small part of the union held these beliefs, the remaining members were relied upon to discipline their colleagues. ^[4] Control over Literární noviny and several other publishing houses was transferred to the ministry of culture,^[4] and even members of the party who later became major reformers—including Dubček—endorsed these moves. ^[4]

In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia, then officially known as the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (ČSSR), underwent an economic downturn. Stalinization (1948&ndash1963 Following the coup d'état of February 1948, when the Communists definitively took power in Czechoslovakia the country was declared a People's The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic ( Československá socialistická republika in Czech and Slovak) was the official name of Czechoslovakia ^[5] The Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia was already quite industrialized before World War II and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Novotný's attempt at restructuring the economy, the 1965 New Economic Model, spurred increased demand for political reform as well. ^[6]

By 1967, president Antonín Novotný was losing support. First Secretary of the regional Communist Party of Slovakia, Alexander Dubček, and economist Ota Šik challenged him at a meeting of the Central Committee, and Dubček invited Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev to Prague that December. The Communist Party of Slovakia ( Slovak: Komunistická strana Slovenska — KSS was a Communist party in Slovakia. Ota Šik ( September 11 1919 – August 22 2004) was a Czech Economist and politician Prague (ˈprɑːg Praha (ˈpraɦa see also other names) is the Capital and Largest city of the Czech Republic. ^[7] Brezhnev was surprised at the extent of the opposition to Novotný and supported his removal as Czechoslovakia's leader. Dubček thus replaced Novotný as First Secretary on January 5, 1968. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France. Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[8] On March 22, 1968, Novotný resigned his presidency and was replaced by Ludvík Svoboda, who later gave consent to the reforms. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Ludvík Svoboda (born November 25 1895, Hroznatín, Moravia - died September 20 1979, Prague) was a ^[9]

Liberalization and reform

The Czechoslovak public knew nothing of the political infighting, and early signs of change were few. When the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) Presidium member Josef Smrkovský was interviewed in a Rudé Právo article, entitled "What Lies Ahead", he insisted that Dubček's appointment at the January Plenum would further the goals of socialism and maintain the working-class nature of the Communist Party. Josef Smrkovský ( 26 February 1911 &ndash 15 January 1974) was a Czechoslovak politician and a member of the Communist Party Rudé právo ( Czech for The Red Right or The Red Law) was the official Newspaper of the Communist Party ^[10]

On the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia’s "Victorious February", Dubček delivered a speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism. The Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948 (often simply the Czech coup) (Únor 1948 Február 1948 both meaning "February 1948" in Communist historiography known as " He emphasized the need to "enforce the leading role of the party more effectively"^[11] and acknowledged that, despite Klement Gottwald's urgings for better relations with society, the Party had too often made heavy-handed rulings on trivial issues. Klement Gottwald ( November 23, 1896, Dědice (Vyškov South Moravia Austria-Hungary (now the Czech Republic - March Dubček declared the party's mission was "to build an advanced socialist society on sound economic foundations . . .  a socialism that corresponds to the historical democratic traditions of Czechoslovakia, in accordance with the experience of other communist parties . . . "^[11]

In April, Dubček launched an "Action Program" of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of movement, with economic emphasis on consumer goods and the possibility of a multiparty government. The Action Programme is a political plan devised by Alexander Dubček and his associates in the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ that was published on The program was based on the view that "Socialism cannot mean only liberation of the working people from the domination of exploiting class relations, but must make more provisions for a fuller life of the personality than any bourgeois democracy. "^[12] The program would limit the power of the secret police^[13] and provide for the federalization of the ČSSR into two equal nations. The Constitutional Law of Federation (Ústavní zákon o československé federaci was a constitutional law in Czechoslovakia adopted on 27 October ^[14] The Program also covered foreign policy, including both the maintenance of good relations with Western countries and cooperation with the Soviet Union and other communist nations. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 ^[15] It spoke of a ten year transition through which democratic elections would be made possible and a new form of democratic socialism would replace the status quo. ^[16]

Those who drafted the Program, however, were careful not to criticize the actions of the post-war communist regime, only to point out policies that they felt had outlived their usefulness. ^[17] For instance, the immediate post-war situation had required "centralist and directive-administrative methods"^[17] to fight against the "remnants of the bourgeoisie. "^[17] Since the "antagonistic classes"^[17] were said to have been defeated with the achievement of socialism, these methods were no longer necessary. Reform was needed, stated the Program, for the Czechoslovak economy to join the "scientific-technical revolution in the world"^[17] rather than relying on Stalinist-era heavy industry, labor power, and raw materials. Heavy industry does not have a single fixed meaning as compared to Light industry. ^[17] Furthermore, since internal class conflict had been overcome, workers could now be duly rewarded for their qualifications and technical skills without contravening Marxist-Leninism. The Program suggested it was now necessary to ensure important positions were "filled by capable, educated socialist expert cadres" in order to compete with capitalism. ^[17]

Although the Action Program stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction, popular pressure mounted to implement reforms immediately. ^[18] Radical elements became more vocal: anti-Soviet polemics appeared in the press (after the formal abolishment of censorship on June 26, 1968),^[16] the Social Democrats began to form a separate party, and new unaffiliated political clubs were created. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire. Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Czech Social Democratic Party ( Czech: Česká strana sociálně demokratická or ČSSD) is the Social Democratic Political party Party conservatives urged repressive measures, but Dubček counseled moderation and reemphasized KSČ leadership. ^[19] At the Presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in April, Dubček announced a political program of "socialism with a human face". The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, in Czech and in Slovak Komunistická strana Československa (KSČ was a political party in Czechoslovakia that existed between ^[20] In May, he announced that the Fourteenth Party Congress would convene in an early session on September 9. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian The congress would incorporate the Action Program into the party statutes, draft a federalization law, and elect a new Central Committee. ^[21]

Dubček's reforms guaranteed freedom of the press, and political commentary was allowed for the first time in mainstream media. ^[22] At the time of the Prague Spring, Czechoslovak exports were declining in competitiveness, and Dubček's reforms planned to solve these troubles by mixing planned and market economies. A planned economy or directed economy is an Economic system in which the Government or Workers' councils manages the Economy. A market economy is a realized Social system based on the Division of labour in which the prices of Goods and Services are determined in a Within the party, there were varying opinions on how this should proceed; certain economists wished for a more mixed economy while others wanted the economy to remain mostly socialist. A mixed economy is an Economic system that incorporates aspects of more than one economic system Dubček continued to stress the importance of economic reform proceeding under Communist Party rule. ^[23]

On June 27, Ludvík Vaculík, a leading author and journalist, published a manifesto titled The Two Thousand Words. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Ludvík Vaculík ( July 23 1926 in Brumov) is a Czech Writer and Journalist. "The Two Thousand Words" is a manifesto written by Czech reformist writer Ludvik Vaculik in the midst of the Prague Spring, a period of political liberalization It expressed concern about conservative elements within the KSČ and so-called "foreign" forces. Vaculík called on the people to take the initiative in implementing the reform program. ^[24] Dubček, the party Presidium, the National Front, and the cabinet denounced this manifesto. ^[25]

Soviet reaction

Leonid Brezhnev

Initial reaction within the Communist Bloc was mixed. During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were Hungary's János Kádár was highly supportive of Dubček's appointment in January, but Leonid Brezhnev and others grew concerned about Dubček's reforms, which they feared might weaken the position of the Communist Bloc during the Cold War. The People's Republic of Hungary or Hungarian People's Republic (Magyar Népköztársaság was the official state name of Hungary from 1949 to 1989 during its János Kádár, né Giovanni Czermanik (his Italian first name was due to the laws of Fiume, his father the soldier János Kressinger denied paternity and refused Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the ^[26][27][28]

At a March 23 meeting in Dresden, leaders of "Warsaw Five" (USSR, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria and the East Germany) questioned a Czechoslovak delegation over the planned reforms, suggesting any talk of "democratization" was a veiled critique of other policies. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The People's Republic of Poland or Polish People's Republic ( Polish: Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL Russian The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state ^[29] Władysław Gomułka and Janos Kádár were less concerned with the reforms themselves, but with the growing criticisms leveled by the Czechoslovak media, and worried the situation might be "similar to the prologue of the Hungarian counterrevolution". Władysław Gomułka ( February 6, 1905, Krosno - September 1, 1982) was a Polish Communist leader The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 ( Hungarian: 1956-os forradalom) was a spontaneous nationwide Revolt against the Stalinist government of ^[29] Some of the language in April's KSČ Action Program may have been chosen to assert that no counterrevolution was planned, but Kieran Williams suggests that Dubček was perhaps surprised at, but not resentful of, Soviet suggestions. ^[30]

The Soviet leadership tried to stop or limit the changes in the ČSSR through a series of negotiations. The Soviet Union agreed to bilateral talks with Czechoslovakia in July at Čierna nad Tisou, near the Slovak-Soviet border. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Čierna nad Tisou (Tiszacsernyő is a Town and Municipality in the Trebišov District in the Košice Region of extreme south-eastern At the meeting, Dubček defended the program of the reformist wing of the KSČ while pledging commitment to the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe. ^[15] The KSČ leadership, however, was divided between vigorous reformers (Josef Smrkovský, Oldřich Černík, and František Kriegel) who supported Dubček, and conservatives (Vasil Biľak, Drahomír Kolder, and Oldřich Švestka) who adopted an anti-reformist stance. Oldřich Černík ( October 27 1921 - October 19 1994) was a Czechoslovakian Communist Political figure. František Kriegel ( 10 April 1908 &mdash 3 December 1979) was a Czechoslovak politician physician and a member of the Communist RSDr Vasil Biľak (born 11 August 1917 in Krajná Bystrá) was Slovak Communist leader of Rusyn origin Brezhnev decided on compromise. The KSČ delegates reaffirmed their loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promised to curb "anti-socialist" tendencies, prevent the revival of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party, and control the press more effectively. The Soviets agreed to withdraw their troops (still in Czechoslovakia after maneuvers back in June) and permit the September 9 party congress. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian ^[31]

On August 3, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration. Events 8 - Roman Empire General Tiberius defeats Dalmatians on the river Bathinus. ARTICLE TEXT BEGINS AFTER THESE COMMENTS - PLEASE READ 1 Please do not edit the lead without reading The declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against "bourgeois" ideology and all "anti-socialist" forces. Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted International Socialism redirects here For the journal of the same name see International Socialism (journal Proletarian internationalism is a ^[32] The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in a Warsaw Pact country if a "bourgeois" system—a pluralist system of several political parties representing different factions of the capitalist class—was ever established. After the Bratislava conference, Soviet troops left Czechoslovak territory but remained along its borders. ^[33]

Invasion

Main article: Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia

As these talks proved unsatisfactory, the Soviets began to consider a military alternative. On the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, the Soviet Union and four of its Warsaw Pact allies invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist The Soviet Union's policy of compelling the socialist governments of its satellite states to subordinate their national interests to those of the "Eastern Bloc" (through military force if needed) became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. Satellite state is a political term that refers to a country which is formally independent but under heavy influence or control by another country During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet Foreign policy, first and most clearly outlined by S ^[34] On the night of August 20–21, 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries—the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, and East Germany—invaded the ČSSR. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state ^[35][36] That night, 200,000 Warsaw Pact troops and 2,000 tanks entered the country. ^[37] The troops first occupied the Ruzyně International Airport, where air deployment of more troops was arranged. Ruzyně Airport serves Prague, Czech Republic. Located 10 km from the city centre the airport is a hub for Czech Airlines. The Czech forces were confined to their own barracks and were surrounded until the threat of a counter-attack was assuaged. The Czech Armed Forces ( Czech: Armáda České republiky) consists of Land and Air Forces and of specialized support units By the morning of August 21, Czechoslovakia was occupied. ^[36]

Prague, 1968

Neither Romania nor Albania took part in the invasion, and the latter withdrew from the pact over the matter. Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. ^[38] During the attack of the Warsaw Pact armies, 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed (19 of those in Slovakia), 266 severely wounded and another 436 were lightly injured. Czechs (Češi ˈt͡ʃɛʃɪ archaic Čechové) are a western Slavic people of Central Europe, living predominantly in the Czech Republic } The Slovaks or Slovakians are a western Slavic People that primarily inhabit Slovakia and speak the Slovak language, which is ^[39][40] Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist. ^[40]

Although on the night of the invasion the Czechoslovak Presidium declared that Warsaw Pact troops had crossed the border without the knowledge of the ČSSR government, the Soviet Press printed an unsigned request, allegedly by Czechoslovak party and state leaders, for "immediate assistance, including assistance with armed forces". The following publications were known as central newspapers in the Soviet Union. ^[41] At the 14th KSČ Party Congress (conducted secretly, immediately following the intervention), it was emphasized that no member of the leadership had invited the intervention. A party congress is a general conference of a Political party. ^[42] More recent evidence suggests that certain conservative KSČ members (including Biľak, Švestka, Kolder, Indra, and Kapek) did send a request for intervention to the Soviets. ^[43] The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, unseen before, which stopped shortly after. An estimated 70,000 fled immediately, and the total eventually reached 300,000. ^[44]

The Soviets attributed the invasion to the "Brezhnev Doctrine" which stated that the U. S. S. R has the right to intervene whenever a country in the Eastern Bloc appeared to be making a shift towards capitalism. ^[45] There is still some uncertainty, however, as to what provocation, if any, occurred to make the Warsaw Pact armies invade. The days leading up to the invasion was a rather calm period without any major events taking place in Czechoslovakia. ^[46]

Reactions to the invasion

See also: Protests of 1968

In Czechoslovakia, popular opposition to the invasion was expressed in numerous spontaneous acts of nonviolent resistance. The Protests of 1968 consisted of a worldwide series of protests largely led by students and workers On January 19, 1969, student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest against the renewed suppression of free speech. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This article is about a person For the sword see Backsword. Jan Palach ( August 11, 1948 – January 19, 1969 This is an article on the ritualistic suicide practice For the record company see Self Immolation. Wenceslas Square ( Czech:) is one of the main city squares and the centre of the business and cultural communities in the New Town of Prague, ^[47] The generalized resistance caused the Soviet Union to abandon its original plan to oust the First Secretary. Dubček, who had been arrested on the night of August 20, was taken to Moscow for negotiations. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine There, he and several other leaders signed the Moscow Protocol and it was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and a program of moderate reform would continue. Moscow Protocol ( Czech and Moskevský protokol officially Protocol of the negotiations of the ČSSR and USSR delegations) was a document signed

Protest banner reading "For your freedom and ours"

On August 25, citizens of the Soviet Union who did not approve of the invasion protested on the Red Square; eight protesters opened banners with anti-invasion slogans. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the The 1968 Red Square demonstration (Демонстрация 25 августа 1968 года took place on August 25, 1968 at Red Square, Moscow The demonstrators were arrested and later punished; the protest was dubbed "anti-Soviet". ^[48]

A more pronounced effect took place in Communist Romania, where leader Nicolae Ceauşescu, already a staunch opponent of Soviet influences and a self-declared Dubček's supporter, gave a public speech in Bucharest on the day of the invasion, depicting Soviet policies in harsh terms. Nicolae Ceauşescu (nikoˈlaje tʃauˈʃesku (January 26 1918 – December 25 1989 was the communist dictator of Romania from 1965 until December 1989 when a revolution Bucharest ( Romanian: Bucureşti) is the Capital city, industrial and commercial centre of Romania. ^[38] In Finland, a country under domineering Soviet political influence, the occupation caused a major scandal. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. ^[49] Like the Italian and French^[50] Communist Parties, the Communist Party of Finland denounced the occupation. The Italian Communist Party (Italian Partito Comunista Italiano, or PCI emerged as the Communist Party of Italy ( Partito Comunista d'Italia) The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of The Communist Party of Finland (Suomen kommunistinen puolue Finlands kommunistiska parti abbreviated SKP was a Communist Political party in Finland. Nonetheless, Finnish president Urho Kekkonen was the very first Western politician to officially visit Czechoslovakia after August 1968; he received the highest Czechoslovakian honors from the hands of president Ludvík Svoboda, on October 4, 1969. The President of Finland is the Head of State of Finland. Under the Constitution of Finland, executive power is vested in the President and the Kekkonen redirects here For other uses see Kekkonen (disambiguation. Ludvík Svoboda (born November 25 1895, Hroznatín, Moravia - died September 20 1979, Prague) was a Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[49] The Portuguese communist secretary-general Álvaro Cunhal was one of few political leaders from western Europe to have supported the invasion for being counterrevolutionary. The Portuguese Communist Party ( Portuguese: Partido Comunista Português, pron Álvaro Barreirinhas Cunhal (ˈalvɐɾu kuˈɲal Sé Nova Coimbra, 10 November 1913 — Lisbon A counter-revolutionary is anyone who opposes a Revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it in full or in part ^[51] along with the Luxembourg party^[50] and conservative factions of the Greek party. The Communist Party of Luxembourg (Kommunistesch Partei Lëtzebuerg Parti Communiste Luxembourgeois Kommunistische Partei Luxemburg abbreviated to KPL or PCL, The Communist Party of Greece (Κομμουνιστικό Κόμμα Ελλάδας Kommounistikó Kómma Elládas) better known by its acronym ΚΚΕ (usually ^[50]

Western countries offered only vocal criticism following the invasion. The night of the invasion, Canada, Denmark, France, Paraguay, the United Kingdom and the United States requested a meeting of the United Nations Security Council. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[52] At the meeting, the Czechoslovak ambassador Jan Muzik denounced the invasion. Soviet ambassador Jacob Malik insisted the Warsaw Pact actions were "fraternal assistance" against "antisocial forces". ^[52] The next day, several countries suggested a resolution condemning the intervention and calling for immediate withdrawal. Eventually, a vote was taken. Ten members supported the motion; Algeria, India, and Pakistan abstained; the USSR (with veto power) and Hungary opposed it. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Canadian delegates immediately introduced another motion asking for a UN representative to travel to Prague and work toward the release of the imprisoned Czechoslovak leaders. ^[52] By August 26, another vote had not taken place, but a new Czechoslovak representative requested the whole issue be removed from the Security Council's agenda. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. The United States government had sent Shirley Temple Black to Prague in August 1968 to prepare to become the first United States ambassador to a free Czechoslovakia. Shirley Jane Temple (born April 23, 1928) is an Academy Award -winning Actress and Tap dancer, most famous for being an iconic Two decades later, when Czechoslovakia became independent, Black was the first United States ambassador to the country. ^[53]

Aftermath

Main article: Normalization (Czechoslovakia)

Memorial to the victims of the invasion, located in Liberec

In April 1969, Dubček was replaced as first secretary by Gustáv Husák, and a period of "normalization" began. In the History of Czechoslovakia, normalization is a name commonly given to the period 1969 to about 1987 Liberec ( pronounced, Reichenberg Romany: Libertsis) has been since 1918 a City in Czechoslovakia, since 1993 in the Czech Republic Gustáv Husák ( January 10, 1913 - November 18, 1991) was a Slovak politician president of Czechoslovakia and a long-term In the History of Czechoslovakia, normalization is a name commonly given to the period 1969 to about 1987 ^[54] Dubček was expelled from the KSČ and given a job as a forestry official. ^[55][14]

Husák reversed Dubček's reforms, purged the party of its liberal members, and dismissed from public office professional and intellectual elites who openly expressed disagreement with the political transformation. ^[56] Husák worked to reinstate the power of the police authorities and strengthen ties with other socialist nations. He also sought to re-centralize the economy, as a considerable amount of freedom had been granted to industries during the Prague Spring. A planned economy or directed economy is an Economic system in which the Government or Workers' councils manages the Economy. ^[56] Commentary on politics was disallowed again in mainstream media and political statements by anyone who was not considered to have "full political trust" were also banned. ^[22] The only significant change that survived was the federalization of the country, which created the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic in 1969. Political federalism is a Political philosophy in which a group of members are bound together (Latin foedus, covenant) with a governing From 1969 to 1990 the Czech Socialist Republic ( Česká socialistická republika in Czech; abbreviated ČSR) was the official name of that part of From 1969 to 1990, the Slovak Socialist Republic ( Slovenská socialistická republika in Slovak; abbreviated SSR) was the official

In 1987, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Dubček's "socialism with a human face". Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev ^[57] With the fall of socialism in 1989, Dubček became chairman of the federal assembly under the Havel administration. The " Velvet Revolution " (sametová revoluce nežná revolúcia ( November 16 &ndash December 29 1989) refers to a non-violent Václav Havel, GCB, CC, ( (born October 5, 1936) is a Czech Playwright Writer and Politician ^[58] When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and his own reforms, Gorbachev replied, "Nineteen years. "^[59]

Cultural impact

The Prague Spring deepened the disillusionment of many Western leftists with Marxist-Leninist views. Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted It contributed to the growth of Eurocommunist ideas in Western communist parties, which sought greater distance from the Soviet Union, and eventually led to the dissolution of many of these groups. Eurocommunism was a new trend in the 1970s and 1980s within various Western European communist parties to develop a theory and practice of social transformation that ^[60] A decade later, a period of Chinese political liberalization became known as the Beijing Spring. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES For the pop band see Beijing Spring (band The Beijing Spring (北京之春 refers to a brief period of political Liberalization in the It also partly influenced the Croatian Spring in Yugoslavia. The Croatian Spring (Hrvatsko proljeće also called masovni pokret or MASPOK, for "mass movement" was a political movement from the early 1970s that called ^[61] In a 1993 Czech survey, 60% of those surveyed had a personal memory linked to the Prague Spring while another 30% were familiar with the events in some other form. ^[62]

The event has been referenced in popular music, including the music of Karel Kryl, Luboš Fišer's Requiem,^[63] and Karel Husa's Music for Prague 1968. Karel Kryl ( April 12, 1944 &ndash March 3, 1994) was a popular Czech songwriter and performer of many Protest songs in Luboš Fišer ( September 30 1935 &ndash June 22 1999) was a Czech Composer, born in Prague. Karel Husa (born August 7, 1921 in Prague) is a Czech -born classical Composer and conductor Music for Prague 1968 is a programmatic work written by Czech-born composer Karel Husa for Symphonic band and later transcribed for full ^[64] "They Can't Stop The Spring", a song by Irish maverick journalist and songwriter John Waters, represented Ireland in the Eurovision Song Contest in 2007. "They Can't Stop The Spring" is a song by Irish band Dervish. John Waters (born Castlerea, CoRoscommon, Rep of Ireland in 1955) is a columnist with The Irish Times and former editor Waters has described it as "a kind of Celtic celebration of the Eastern European revolutions and their eventual outcome", quoting Dubček's alleged comment: "They may crush the flowers, but they can't stop the Spring. "^[65]

The Prague Spring has also appeared in literature. Milan Kundera set his novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being during the Prague Spring. Milan Kundera (ˈmɪlan ˈkundɛra (born April 1, 1929, in Brno, Czechoslovakia) is a French Writer of Czech The Unbearable Lightness of Being (Nesnesitelná lehkost bytí is a Novel written by Milan Kundera in 1982, first published in 1984 It follows the repercussions of increased Soviet presence and the dictatorial police control of the population. ^[66] A film version was released in 1988. The Unbearable Lightness of Being is a 1988 film adaptation of the novel of the same name by Milan Kundera. ^[67] The Liberators, by Viktor Suvorov, is an eyewitness description of the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia, from the point of view of a Soviet tank commander. The Liberators by Viktor Suvorov (original Russian title Освободитель is a partly autobiographical description of life in the Viktor Suvorov (Ви́ктор Суво́ров is the Pen name for Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun: Влади́мир Богда́нович Резу́н (born ^[68] Rock 'n' Roll, a play by award-winning playwright Tom Stoppard, references the Prague Spring, as well as the 1989 Velvet Revolution. Rock 'n' Roll is a play by Czech -born British Playwright Tom Stoppard that premiered at the Royal Court Theatre Sir Tom Stoppard OM, CBE (born 3 July 1937 is a British Screenwriter playwright The " Velvet Revolution " (sametová revoluce nežná revolúcia ( November 16 &ndash December 29 1989) refers to a non-violent ^[69] Heda Margolius Kovály also ends her memoir Under a Cruel Star with a first hand account of the Prague Spring and the subsequent invasion, and her reflections upon these events. Heda Margolius Kovály is a Czech author Biography Heda Margolius Kovály was born a daughter to two Jewish parents in Prague, in ^[70]

Other than the film adaptation of The Unbearable Lightness of Being, there is also the movie Pelíšky from director Jan Hřebejk and screenwriter Petr Jarchovský, which depicts the events of the Prague Spring, albeit it is more about the period of normalization. Pelíšky ( English: Cosy Dens) is a 1999 Czech film directed by Jan Hřebejk. Jan Hřebejk (born June 27, 1967 in Prague) is a Czech Film director. ^[71] The Czech musical film, Rebelové from Filip Renč, also depicts the events, the invasion and subsequent emigration wave. Rebelové (Rebels is a 2001 Czech musical film The story set in the year of the Prague Spring and the Soviet invasion features ^[71]

The number 68 has become iconic in the former Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Jaromír Jágr, who now plays for the New York Rangers, wears the number because of the importance of the year in Czechoslovak history. Jaromír Jágr ( pronounced, born February 15 1972 in Kladno, Czechoslovakia, now the Czech Republic) is a professional Ice hockey The New York Rangers are a professional Ice hockey team based in New York, New York, United States. ^[72][73] A former publishing house based in Toronto, 68 Publishers, that published books by exiled Czech and Slovak authors, took its name from the event. Toronto (təˈrɒntoʊ colloquially pronounced or) is the largest city in Canada and is the provincial capital of Ontario 68 Publishers, also called Sixty-Eight Publishers, Sixtyeight Publishers, or even Nakladatelství 68 ('nakladatelství' is Czech for 'publisher' was a

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External links

• Think Quest – The Prague Spring 1968
• Radio Free Europe – A Chronology Of Events Leading To The 1968 Invasion
• Prague Life – More information on the Prague Spring