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For other uses, see Pompeii (disambiguation).
Archaeological Areas of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
A quiet street in Pompeii
Type Cultural
Criteria iii, iv, v
Reference 829
Region† Europe and North America
Coordinates 40°45′04″N 14°29′13″E / 40.751, 14.487Coordinates: 40°45′04″N 14°29′13″E / 40.751, 14.487
Inscription history
Inscription 1997  (21st Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
† Region as classified by UNESCO.

Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Roman city near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Herculaneum (in modern Italian Ercolano) is an ancient Roman town located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano. Torre Annunziata is a city and commune in the Province of Naples, region of Campania in Italy. A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex This is a list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Europe. Asia Minor, Cyprus, all of the Aegean Islands, the Canaries A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system. A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system. A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 In Italy, the comune, (plural comuni) is the basic Administrative division of both provinces and regions and may be properly approximated in Pompei is a city in the Province of Naples ( Campania, Italy)

It, along with Herculaneum (its sister city), was destroyed, and completely buried, during a catastrophic eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius spanning two days on 24 August 79 AD. Herculaneum (in modern Italian Ercolano) is an ancient Roman town located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River Year 79 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [1]

The volcano collapsed higher roof-lines and buried Pompeii under many meters of ash and pumice, and it was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Volcanic ash consists of small Tephra, which are bits of pulverized rock and glass created by volcanic eruptions less than in diameter Pumice is a textural term for a volcanic rock that is a solidified frothy lava composed of highly microvesicular glass Pyroclastic with very thin translucent Year 1748 ( MDCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex

Contents

Location

The ruins of Pompeii are situated at coordinates 40°45′00″N, 14°29′10″E, near the modern suburban town of Pompei. Pompei is a city in the Province of Naples ( Campania, Italy) It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus). Sarno River is a stream to the south of Naples in Italy, which passes through Pompeii. Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times it would have been nearer to the coast.

Pompeii and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.
Pompeii and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.

History

Early history

The archaeological digs at the site extend to the street level of the 79 AD volcanic event; deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drillings have exposed layers of jumbled sediment that suggest that the city had suffered from the volcano and other seismic events before then. Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava bedrock that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of animal bone, pottery shards and plants. In Archaeology, a sherd is commonly a historic or prehistoric fragment of Pottery, although the term is occasionally used to refer to fragments Using carbon dating, the oldest layer has been dated to the 8th-6th centuries BC, about the time that the city was founded. Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of The other two layers are separated from the other layers by well-developed soil layers or Roman pavement and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. The theory behind the layers of jumbled sediment is large landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall. A landslide is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement such as rock falls deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows which can occur [2]

The town was founded around the 7th-6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans, a people of central Italy, on what was an important crossroad between Cumae, Nola and Stabiae. The 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. The Osci, which may also be referred to by the names of Opici Opsci (for the fertility goddess Ops) and Obsci (Oscans or Opicans in English were historic inhabitants Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest There is also a small modern Greek Euboean city called Κυμη, near the ruins of the ancient Cuma Nola is a city of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines. Stabiae was an ancient Roman town located close to the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia approximately 4 It had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun According to Strabo, Pompeii was also captured by the Etruscans, and in fact recent excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th century necropolis. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy Pompeii was captured a first time by the Greek colony of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, between 525 and 474 BC. Syracuse (Siracusa Sicilian: Sarausa, Classical Greek: / transliterated Syrakousai) is a historic City in

In the 5th century BC, the Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 After the Samnite Wars (4th century), Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socium of Rome, maintaining however linguistic and administrative autonomy. The First, Second, and Third Samnite wars, between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium, extended over half a century involving In the 4th century BC it was fortified. Pompeii remained faithful to Rome during the Second Punic War. The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western

Pompeii took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 BC it was besieged by Sulla. Year 89 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo and Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c Although the troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 BC Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. Year 80 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Battle of the Baetis River — Democratic rebel It became a Roman colony with the name of Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. Cornelius (fem Cornelia, plural Cornelii) was the Nomen of the Patrician Gens Cornelia, one of the Venus was a major Roman Goddess principally associated with Love, Beauty and fertility, the equivalent of the Greek goddess The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way. Geography Southern Italy forms the lower "boot" of the Italian peninsula containing the ankle (Abruzzo and Molise and southern Lazio the toe (Calabria and the heel The Appian Way ( Latin and Italian: Via Appia) was the most important ancient Roman road. Agriculture, oil and wine production were also important. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Ancient Rome played a pivotal role in the history of Wine. The earliest influences of Viticulture on the Italian peninsula

It was fed with water by a spur from Aqua Augusta (Naples) built circa 20 BC by Agrippa, the main line supplying several other large towns, and finally the naval base at Misenum. The Aqua Augusta or Serino Aqueduct was a Roman aqueduct which supplied water to eight cities in the Bay of Naples, including Pompeii, Stabiae Agrippa redirects here For other uses of the name see Agrippa (disambiguation. Misenum is the site of an ancient port in Campania, in southern Italy. The castellum in Pompeii is well preserved, and includes many interesting details of the distribution network and its controls. A castellum is a small Roman detached Fort or fortlet used as a watch tower or signal station

1st century

The Forum seen from inside the basilica
The Forum seen from inside the basilica
Portrait on the wall of a Pompeii house
Portrait on the wall of a Pompeii house
Teatro Grande with a large audience capacity, next to Teatro Piccolo.
Teatro Grande with a large audience capacity, next to Teatro Piccolo.
Pompeii palestra (exercise court) as seen from the top of the amphitheater
Pompeii palestra (exercise court) as seen from the top of the amphitheater

The excavated town offers a snapshot of Roman life in the 1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried on 24 August 79. The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River Year 79 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. The Forum was the public space in the middle of a Roman city It had a great social importance and was often the scene of diverse activities including political discussions The Villa of the Mysteries or Villa dei Misteri is a well preserved ruin of a Roman Villa which lies some 800 meters north-west of Pompeii.

Pompeii was a lively place, and evidence abounds of literally the smallest details of everyday life. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription Salve, lucru (Welcome, money), perhaps humorously intended, shows us a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since nummus means coin, money). In other houses, details abound concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (Fullones). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun, Vesuvinum (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum). Graffiti carved on the walls shows us real street Latin (Vulgar Latin, a different dialect than the literary or classical Latin). Graffiti (singular graffito; the plural is used as a Mass noun) is the name for images or lettering scratched scrawled painted or marked in any manner on property Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin In 89 BC, after the final occupation of the city by Roman General Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompeii was finally annexed to the Roman Republic. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the During this period, Pompeii underwent a vast process of infrastructural development, most of which was built during the Augustan period. Worth noting are an amphitheatre, a Palaestra with a central natatorium or swimming pool, and an aqueduct that provided water for more than 25 street fountains, at least four public baths, and a large number of private houses (domus) and businesses. An amphitheatre (alternatively amphitheater) is an open-air venue for spectator sports concerts rallies or theatrical performances For the sports arena in Philadelphia (Pennsylvania see Palestra. An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another A domus was the form of house that wealthy and some Middle class families owned in Ancient Rome and could be found in almost all the major cities of the The amphitheatre has been cited by modern scholars as a model of sophisticated design particularly in the area of crowd control. [3] The aqueduct branched out through three main pipes from the Castellum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city; although it did much more than distribute the waters, it did so with the prerequisite that in the case of extreme drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (the least vital service), then private houses and businesses, and when there would be no water flow at all, the system would then at last fail to supply the public fountains (the most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply

The large number of well-preserved frescoes throw a great light on everyday life and have been a major advance in art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of the Pompeian Styles (First/Second/Third Style). Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or Art history is the Academic study of objects of Art in their Historical development and stylistic contexts i The Pompeian Styles are four periods which are distinguished in ancient Roman mural painting. Some aspects of the culture were distinctly erotic(Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum), including phallic worship. Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum was discovered in the ancient cities around the bay of Naples (particularly of Pompeii and Herculaneum) after extensive A large collection of erotic votive objects and frescoes were found at Pompeii. Many were removed and kept until recently in a secret collection at the University of Naples.

At the time of the eruption, the town could have had some 20,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area in which Romans had their holiday villas. Prof. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations. " It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. It was not distributed on a regular plan as we are used to seeing in Roman towns, due to the difficult terrain. But its streets are straight and laid out in a grid, in the purest Roman tradition; they are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its decumanus and its cardo, centered on the forum. In Roman city planning, a decumanus was an east-west-oriented road in a Roman city Castra (military camp or colonia. In Ancient Roman City planning, a cardo or cardus was a north-south-oriented street in cities military camps and coloniae Sometimes called

Besides the forum, many other services were found: the Macellum (great food market), the Pistrinum (mill), the Thermopolium (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and cauponae (small restaurants). A macellum (plural macella) is an Ancient Roman indoor market building that sold mostly provisions (especially fruits and vegetables A thermopolium was a place used during the times of Ancient Rome were it was possible to purchase ready-to-eatfood An amphitheatre and two theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or gymnasium. An amphitheatre (alternatively amphitheater) is an open-air venue for spectator sports concerts rallies or theatrical performances The gymnasium in Ancient Greece functioned as a training facility for competitors in public Games It was also a place for socializing and engaging in intellectual A hotel (of 1,000 square metres) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine".

In 2002 another important discovery at the mouth of the Sarno River revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in palafittes, within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to Venice to some scientists. Sarno is a town of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Salerno, 20 km northeast from the city of Salerno and 60 km east of A palafitte is traditionally a small single-storyed House, that sits on Stilts embedded into the ground Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the These studies are just beginning to produce results.

62-79 AD

Main article: Mount Vesuvius#Foreshocks
Fresco of a Roman woman from Pompeii, c. 50 CE.
Fresco of a Roman woman from Pompeii, c. Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples 50 CE.

The inhabitants of Pompeii, as those of the area today, had long been used to minor quaking (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February 62, [1] there was a severe temblor which did considerable damage around the bay and particularly to Pompeii. A writer is anyone who creates a written work although the word usually designates those who write creatively or professionally as well as those who have written in many different forms Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca Events 1576 - Henry of Navarre converts to Roman Catholicism in order to ensure his right to the throne of France. Year 62 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer The earthquake, which took place on the afternoon of the 5th, is believed to have registered over 7. 5 on the Richter scale. The Richter magnitude scale, or more correctly local magnitude M L scale assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released On 5 February in Pompeii there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named "Father of the Nation" and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake. Fires, caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake, added to the panic. Nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected. Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of Pompeii were affected. In the days after the earthquake, anarchy ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. Anarchy (from αναρχία anarchía, "without ruler " may refer to any of the following "Absence of government a state of lawlessness In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption [2]. It is unknown how many people left the city after the earthquake, but a considerable number did indeed leave the devastation behind and move to other cities within the Roman Empire. Those willing to rebuild and take their chances in their beloved city moved back and began the long process of reviving the city.

An important field of current research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged, paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired around 17 years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.

Vesuvius eruption

Main articles: Mount Vesuvius and Mount Vesuvius#Eruption of 79
A computer-generated depiction of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 which buried Pompeii (from BBC's Pompeii: The Last Day). The depiction of the Temple of Jupiter, facing the forum, and the Temple of Apollo, across the portico to the left, are nonetheless inaccurate, and the shown state of the porticoes around the forum is also at least questionable, as they all appear intact during this recreation of the 79 eruption; it is widely known that at least the Temples of Jupiter and Apollo had been destroyed 17 years before, during the 62 earthquake, and that they had not been rebuilt by the time the city was finally destroyed in the 79 eruption
A computer-generated depiction of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 which buried Pompeii (from BBC's Pompeii: The Last Day). Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples Year 79 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Pompeii The Last Day is a 2003 dramatized documentary that tells of the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius on 24th August 79 The depiction of the Temple of Jupiter, facing the forum, and the Temple of Apollo, across the portico to the left, are nonetheless inaccurate, and the shown state of the porticoes around the forum is also at least questionable, as they all appear intact during this recreation of the 79 eruption; it is widely known that at least the Temples of Jupiter and Apollo had been destroyed 17 years before, during the 62 earthquake, and that they had not been rebuilt by the time the city was finally destroyed in the 79 eruption

By the 1st century, Pompeii was one of a number of towns located around the base of Mount Vesuvius. See Temple of Jupiter for other temples to him The Temple of Jupiter, Capitolium, or Temple of the Capitoline Triad The Temple of Apollo is a temple dedicated to the Roman god Apollo in the ancient Roman town of Pompeii. The Forum was the public space in the middle of a Roman city It had a great social importance and was often the scene of diverse activities including political discussions The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighbouring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 eruption. Herculaneum (in modern Italian Ercolano) is an ancient Roman town located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano.

The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of soil. Pliny the Younger provides a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the Bay of Naples at Misenum, in a version which was written 25 years after the event. Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca The Gulf of Naples is located in the south western coast of Italy ( Province of Naples, Campania region Misenum is the site of an ancient port in Campania, in southern Italy. The experience must have been etched on his memory given the trauma of the occasion, and the loss of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, with whom he had a close relationship. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author His uncle lost his life while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As Admiral of the fleet, he had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events "Plinian".

Rediscovery

"Garden of the Fugitives". Some plaster casts of victims of the eruption still in actual Pompeii; many are in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. (Casts can also be found, amongst other places, near the forum, inside the baths, and at the Villa of the Mysteries.)
"Garden of the Fugitives". Some plaster casts of victims of the eruption still in actual Pompeii; many are in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. (Casts can also be found, amongst other places, near the forum, inside the baths, and at the Villa of the Mysteries. )

After thick layers of ash covered the two towns, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. Then Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738 by workmen working on the foundation of a summer palace for the King of Naples, Charles of Bourbon, and Pompeii in 1748. Charles III ( January 20, 1716 – December 14, 1788) was King of Spain 1700–88 (as Carlos III King of Naples and These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. The towns were actually found in 1599 by Domenico Fontana, who was digging a new course for the river Sarno, but it took more than 150 years before a serious campaign was started to unearth them. Domenico Fontana (1543 &ndash June 28 1607) was a Swiss -born Italian Architect of the late Renaissance. Sarno is a town of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Salerno, 20 km northeast from the city of Salerno and 60 km east of Charles III took great interest in the findings even after becoming king of Spain.

Karl Weber directed the first real excavations;[4] he was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega. Karl Jakob Weber (12 August 1712 — 1764 was a Swiss architect and engineer who was in charge of the first organized excavations at Herculaneum, Pompeii and Franscisco la Vega was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804. Pietro la Vega (? - 1810 was a Spanish archaeologist and Artist known for his drawings of the ruins of Pompeii, Herculaneum and [5] During the French occupation Pietro worked with Christophe Saliceti. [6]

Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1860. Giuseppe Fiorelli (1823 - 1896 was an Italian archaeologist. Fiorelli was born in Naples, Italy. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to perfectly recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. What resulted were highly accurate and eerie forms of the doomed Pompeiani who failed to escape, in their last moment of life, with the expression of terror often quite clearly visible ([3], [4], [5]). This technique is still in use today, with resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable. Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees.

Some have theorized that Fontana found some of the famous erotic frescoes and, due to the strict modesty prevalent during his time, reburied them in an attempt at archaeological censorship. Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos This view is bolstered by reports of later excavators who felt that sites they were working on had already been visited and reburied. A detailed discussion of the erotic art of Pompeii, with pictures, can be found in a separate article. Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum was discovered in the ancient cities around the bay of Naples (particularly of Pompeii and Herculaneum) after extensive

Pompeii today

The Circumvesuviana stop at Pompeii, a popular tourist destination.
The Circumvesuviana stop at Pompeii, a popular tourist destination.

Pompeii has become a popular tourist destination for centuries (it was on the Grand Tour); with approximately 2. The Grand Tour was the traditional travel of Europe undertaken by mainly upper-class European young men of means 5 million visitors a year, it is the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. It is now part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the Soprintendenza Archaeological di Pompei have begun issuing new tickets that allow for tourists to also visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii. Herculaneum (in modern Italian Ercolano) is an ancient Roman town located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano. Stabiae was an ancient Roman town located close to the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia approximately 4 The Villa Poppaea is a Roman villa situated between Naples and Sorrento, in southern Italy, which dates from the early Imperial period

Pompeii is also a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality business, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters or hotel operators. The ruins can be reached by simply walking from the modern town to the various entrances, there are adequate car parks and the entrances are also accessible to tourists through the train line to the modern town, or else a private train line, the Circumvesuviana, that runs directly to the ancient site. Circumvesuviana is a Narrow-gauge railway connecting cities near Naples, Italy.

A paved street
A paved street

Excavations in the site have generally ceased due to the moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. Additionally, the site is generally less accessible to tourists, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s being available for public viewing today. Nevertheless, the sections of the ancient city open to the public are extensive, and tourists can spend many days exploring the whole site.

Issues of conservation

Main article: Conservation Issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum

When Pompeii was buried under the ash and rubble of Mount Vesuvius, the objects buried beneath it were remarkably well-preserved for almost two thousand years. Pompeii and Herculaneum were once thriving towns in the Bay of Naples The lack of air and moisture allowed for the objects to remain underground with little to no deterioration, which meant that, once excavated, the site had a wealth of sources and evidence for analysis, giving remarkable detail into the lives of the Pompeiians. Unfortunately, once exposed, Pompeii has been subject to both natural and man-made forces which have rapidly increased their rate of deterioration.

Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating. The concern for conservation has continually troubled archaeologists. Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. An estimated US$335 million is needed for all necessary work on Pompeii.

Karl Brullov, The Last Day of Pompeii (1830-33)
Karl Brullov, The Last Day of Pompeii (1830-33)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The 24 August is the traditional day for the eruption, based on a version of the letter by Pliny the Younger; recent scholarity, however, support another version of the letter, which reports another day, at the end of October/beginning of November (Stefani, Grete, "La vera data dell'eruzione", Archeo, October 2006, pp. Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca 10-14.
  2. ^ Senatore, et al. , 2004
  3. ^ Crowd Control in Ancient Pompeii
  4. ^ Parslow, Christopher Charles (1995) Rediscovering antiquity: Karl Weber and the excavation of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, ISBN 0-521-47150-8
  5. ^ *Pagano, Mario (1997) I Diari di Scavo di Pompeii, Ercolano e Stabiae di Francesco e Pietro la Vega (1764-1810) "L'Erma" di Bretschneidein, Rome, ISBN 88-7062-967-8 (in Italian)
  6. ^ POMPEIA d'Ernest Breton (3eme éd. 1870) "Introduction - La résurrection de la ville" in French

References

External links


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Dictionary

Pompeii

-proper noun

  1. An ruined Roman town in Italy, destroyed by Vesuvius (a volcano) in 79AD
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