Contents 1 Meaning of terms 2 Evaluations 3 Historic periods 3.1 Piast Poland 3.2 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 3.3 Partitions 3.4 Second Polish Republic 3.5 Post–World War II 4 Ethnicity of notable figures 5 References 6 External links 7 Further reading

Polonization (Polish: polonizacja)^[1] is the acquisition or imposition of elements of Polish culture, especially Polish language, as experienced in some historic periods by non-Polish populations of territories controlled or substantially influenced by Poland. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. The Culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1000 year history. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland.

Meaning of terms

In linguistics, Polonization refers to conversion of a foreign word or name to a form better following Polish phonetic and syntactical rules. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Compare with Romanization. In Linguistics, romanization (or latinization, also spelled romanisation or latinisation) is the representation of a Word or

In history, depending on the context, the phenomenon of Polonization can be understood in two different ways. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology

Evaluations

On the one hand, Polonization can be seen as an example of cultural assimilation. A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot. Such view is widely considered applicable to the times of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795) when the Ruthenian and Lithuanian upper classes were drawn towards the more Westernized Polish culture, political and financial benefits of such transition, as well as, sometimes, by the administrative pressure exerted on their own cultural institutions, primarily the Orthodox Church. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Ruthenia is a geographic and culturo-ethnic name applied to the parts of Eastern Europe populated by Eastern Slavic peoples, as well as to the past various Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Is a concept in Sociology that refers to the group of people at the top of a Social hierarchy. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world The conversion to the Roman Catholic faith (and to a lesser extent, Protestant) was often the single most important part of the process as for Ruthenians of that time being Polish culturally and Roman Catholic by religion was almost the same. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. This aspect of Polonization that led to the diminishing of the Orthodox Church was most resented by Belarusian and Ukrainian masses. In contrast the Lithuanians, who were mostly Catholic, were in danger of losing their cultural identity as a nation, but that didn't become evident for the wide masses of Lithuanians until the Lithuanian national renaissance in the middle of the 19th century. This article discusses the history of Lithuania and of the Lithuanians. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar

On the other hand, the Polonization policies of the Polish government in the interwar years of the twentieth century were again two-folded. The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. Some of them were similar to the mostly forcible assimilationist policies, implemented by other European powers that have aspired to regional dominance (e. A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot. g. , Germanization, Russification), while others resembled policies carried out by countries aiming at increasing the role of their native language and culture in their own societies (e. Germanisation (also spelled Germanization) is either the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or Assimilation Russification (in Russian: русификация rusifikátsiya)is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attribute (whether voluntarily g. , Rumanization, Ukrainization). Romanianization or Rumanization is the term used to describe a number of ethnic assimilation policies implemented by the Romanian authorities during the 20th century Ukrainization (also spelled Ukrainisation or Ukrainianization) is a policy of increasing the usage and facilitating the development of the Ukrainian language For Poles, it was a process of rebuilding the Polish national identity and reclaiming Polish heritage, including the fields of education, religion, infrastructure and administration, that suffered under the prolonged periods of foreign occupation by the neighboring empires of Russia, Prussia, and Austria-Hungary. The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state However, as a third of recreated Poland's population was ethnically non-Polish and many felt their own nationhood aspirations thwarted specifically by Poland, large segments of this population resisted to varying extent policies aimed to assimilate them into Polish culture. Part of the country's leadership emphasized the need for the ethnic and cultural homogeneity of the state in the long term. Narodowa Demokracja (National Democracy also known from its initials ND as " Endecja," was a Polish Right-wing However, the governmental advancement of Polish language in the administration, the public life and, especially, the education (combined with discriminating against other languages) were perceived by some as an attempt at forcible homogenization. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. In areas inhabited by ethnic Ukrainians for example, actions of the Polish authorities seen as aiming at restricting the influence of the Orthodox and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church caused additional resentment, and were considered to be closely tied to religious Polonization, as most ethnic Poles were Catholics. History Before the Union of Brest See also History of Christianity in Ukraine The Ukrainian Catholic church did not exist as such until the

The proponents of the Polonization policies implemented in areas where ethnic Poles were a minority hoped that they would result in the Polish language becoming dominant over the continuum of a few generations. However, given the relatively short duration of the Republic's independence of less than twenty years, these policies, applied with varying intensity by successive Polish governments, fell far short of their aim, thus contributing to increased ethnic tensions which led to large scale interethnic violence during World War II. The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

Historic periods

Piast Poland

Between the 12th and the 14th centuries many towns in Poland adopted the so-called Magdeburg rights that promoted the towns' development and trade. Magdeburg Rights (Magdeburger Recht or Magdeburg Law were a set of German town laws regulating the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages granted with A trade as an occupation usually refers to the profession that require some particular kind of skilled work The rights were usually granted by the king on the occasion of the arrival of migrants. Some, integrated with the larger community, such as merchants who settled there, especially Greeks and Armenians. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large They adopted most aspects of Polish culture but kept their Orthodox faith. Since the Middle Ages, Polish culture, influenced by the West, in turn radiated East, beginning the long and uneasy process of cultural assimilation. A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot. ^[2]

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the non-Polish ethnic groups, especially the Ruthenians and Lithuanians, found themselves under the strong pressure of Polish culture. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Lithuanians are the Baltic Ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number a little over 3 million The Culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1000 year history. ^[3][4]

The Polish rule of the territory started from the 1569 Union of Lublin, when many of the territories formerly controlled by largely Ruthenized^[5][6] Grand Duchy of Lithuania were transferred to the Polish Crown, while in reality it continued well into the 19th century as the enserfed peasantry and huge estates were left in the Russian and Austrian Empires under the control of the Polish magnates, or the Polonized ones, virtually indistinguishable from the former. The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position

In the climate of the colonization of Ruthenian lands by the Polish or Polonized nobility,^[7] persecution^[8][9] and even an attempted ban^[10] of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Polish controlled territories following the unsuccessful attempt to convert the Ruthenian peasantry^[10] into the Catholicism, pressures and attractions of Polonization on Ruthenian nobility and cultural elite resulted in almost complete abandonment of Ruthenian culture, traditions and the Orthodox Church by the Ruthenian higher class. Colonisation (also known as Colonization) occurs whenever any one or more species populates a new area Szlachta ( refers to the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal semi-confederal The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world The administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the result of the long and complicated history of the fragmentation of the Polish Kingdom and the Union Union of Brest ( Belarusian: Берасьцейская унія, Ukrainian: Берестейська унія, Unia brzeska refers to the As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world ^[11]

The Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila was offered the Polish crown and became Władysław II Jagiełło (reigned 1386-1434). Jogaila, later Władysław II Jagiełło (b about 1362 d 1 June 1434 was Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. Jogaila, later Władysław II Jagiełło (b about 1362 d 1 June 1434 was Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. This marked the beginning of the gradual Polonization of the Lithuanian nobility. He built many Roman Catholic churches in pagan Lithuanians land and provided them generously with estates, gave out the lands and positions to the Catholics, settled the cities and villages and gave most the biggest cities and towns the Magdeburg Rights privileges that consisted of many allowances. Lithuanians are the Baltic Ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number a little over 3 million Magdeburg Rights (Magdeburger Recht or Magdeburg Law were a set of German town laws regulating the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages granted with These rights were given only to the settlements dominated by the Poles and the Germans but not to Ruthenian settlements whose residents were fully taxed. The noble Ruthenians were also freed from many payment obligations and their rights were equalized with those of the Polish nobility but only when they adopted the Catholicism. Then they were provided with compensation for the military service, while those who remained Orthodox received none. As such, the entire population of Ruthenia was split into the privileged and non-privileged ones, and the latter were the Orthodox people of Ruthenia. ^[3]

Under Jagiełło's successor Władysław III of Varna (reigned 1434-1444) the Polonization which earlier took place more by force than by other means^[12] attained a certain degree of subtlety. This article refers to the 15th century Jagiellon monarch For the 12th century Piast monarch see Władysław III Spindleshanks, and for other monarchs with similar Władysław III introduced some more liberal reforms. He expanded the privileges to all Ruthenian nobles, irrespective of their religion, and in 1443 he signed a bull equalizing the Orthodox church in rights with the Roman Catholicism thus alleviating the relationship with the Orthodox clergy. These policies continued under the next king Casimir IV Jagiellon. Casimir IV Jagiellon (Kazimierz IV Jagiellończyk; Kazimieras Jogailaitis Kazimir Jahajłavič 30 November 1427 &ndash Still, the mostly cultural expansion of the Polish influence continued since the Ruthenian nobility were attracted by both the glamour of the Western culture and the Polish political order where the magnates became the unrestricted rulers of the lands and serfs in their vast estates. Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man itself from Latin magnus 'great' designates a noble or other man in a high social position

Some Ruthenian magnates like Sanguszko, Wiśniowiecki and Kisiel, resisted the cultural Polonization for several generations, with the Ostrogski family being one of the most prominent examples. Sanguszko ( Belarusian: Сангушка) is a Polish - Lithuanian noble family of the Ruthenian stock from Gediminid dynasty Wiśniowiecki (Вишневе́цький Višnioveckiai|} is the name of a family notable in the history of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Ostrogski (Ostrogiškiai Острозькі- Ostrozki) was one of the greatest Ruthenian Princely families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Remaining generally loyal to the Polish state, the magnates, like Ostrogskis, stood by the religion of their forefathers, and supported the Orthodox Church generously by opening schools, printing books in Ruthenian language (the first four printed Cyrillic books in the world were published in Cracow, in 1491^[2]) and giving generously to the Orthodox churches' construction. The Cyrillic alphabet (səˈrɪlɪk also called azbuka, from the old name of the first two letters is actually a family of Alphabets, subsets of which are used by However, their resistance was gradually waning with each subsequent generation as more and more of the Ruthenian elite turned towards Polish language and Catholicism.

Still, with most of the educational system getting Polonized and the most generously funded institutions being to the west of Ruthenia, the Ruthenian indigenous culture further deteriorated. In the Polish Ruthenia the language of the administrative paperwork started to gradually shift towards Polish. By the 16th century the language of administrative paperwork in Ruthenia was a peculiar mix of the older Church Slavonic with the Ruthenian language of the commoners and the Polish language. Church Slavonic (also Church Slavic, Old Bulgarian) is the Liturgical language of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Ruthenian (also Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. With the Polish influence in the mix gradually increasing it soon became mostly like the Polish language superimposed on the Ruthenian phonetics. The total confluence of Ruthenia and Poland was seen coming. ^[13]

As the Eastern Rite Greek-Catholic Church originally created to accommodate the Ruthenian, initially Orthodox, nobility, ended up unnecessary to them as they converted directly into the Latin Rite Catholicism en masse, the Church largely became an hierarchy without followers. This article refers to Eastern Churches in full communion with the Holy See This article refers to Eastern Churches in full communion with the Holy See The Latin Rite is one of the 23 Sui iuris Particular Churches within the Catholic Church. The Greek Catholic Church was then used as a tool aimed to split even the peasantry from their Ruthenian roots, still mostly unsuccessfully. ^[10] The commoners, deprived of their native protectors, sought protection through the Cossacks,^[10] who, being fiercely Orthodox, tended also to easily turn to violence against those they perceived as their enemies, particularly the Polish state and what they saw as its representatives, the Poles and generally the Catholics , as well as the Jews. The Cossacks (Каза́ки́ Kazaki; Козаки́ Kozaki; Kozacy are a group of martial people living in the southern Steppe regions of Eastern Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". ^[14]

After several Cossack uprisings, especially the fateful Khmelnytsky uprising, and foreign invasions (like the Deluge), the Commonwealth, increasingly powerless and falling under the control of its neighbours,^[15][16] started to decline, the process which eventually culminated with elimination of the Polish statehood in the end of the 18th century for the next 123 years. The term Khmelnytsky Uprising (also Khmel'nyts'kyi/Chmielnicki Uprising or Khmelnytsky / Chmielnicki Rebellion) refers to a Rebellion or The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system

While the Commonwealth's Warsaw Compact is widely considered an example of an unprecedented religious tolerance for its time,^[17] the oppressive policies of Poland towards its Eastern Orthodox subjects is often cited as one of the main reasons that brought the state's demise. The Warsaw Confederation ( January 28, 1573) an important development in the History of Poland and Lithuania, is considered the formal beginning Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own ^[18]

During all time of existing of Commonwealth Polonization in western part of country referred to rather small groups of colonists, like Bambrzy in Greater Poland. Greater Poland or Great Poland, Polish Wielkopolska (Großpolen Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland

Partitions

Polonization also occurred during times when a Polish state didn't exist, despite the empires that partition Poland applied the policies aimed at reversing the past gains of Polonization or aimed at replacing Polish identity and eradication of Polish national group. The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the ^{[19][20][21][22]}

The Polonization took place in the early years of the Prussian partition, where as a reaction to the persecution of Roman Catholicism during the Kulturkampf, German Catholics living in areas with a Polish majority voluntarily integrated themselves within Polish society, affecting approximately 100,000 Germans in the eastern provinces of Prussia. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The German term (literally "culture struggle" refers to German policies in relation to Secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted ^[19]

According to some scholars the biggest successes in Polonisation of the non-Polish lands of former Commonwealth were achieved after the Partitions, in times of persecution of Polishness (noted by Leon Wasilewski (1917^[23]), Mitrofan Dovnar-Zapolsky (1926^[24])). Leon Wasilewski (1870-1936 was an activist of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS a coworker of Józef Piłsudski, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs, designer Mitrofan Viktorovich Dovnar-Zapol'skiy (Мітрафан Віктаравіч Доўнар-Запольскі Митрофан Викторович Довнар-Запольский Paradoxically, the substantial eastward movement of the Polish ethnic territory (over these lands) and growth of the Polish ethnic regions were taking place exactly in the period of the strongest Russian attack on everything Polish in Lithuania and Belarus. ^[25]

The general outline of causes for that is considered to include the activities of the Roman-Catholic Church^[26] and the cultural influence exacted by the big cities (Vilna, Kovno) on these lands,^[27] the activities of the Vilna educational district in 1800s—1820s,^[28] the activities of the local administration, still controlled by the local Polish or already Polonised nobility up to the 1863—1864 January Uprising,^[29] secret (Polish) schools in second half nineteenth to the beginning of the twentieth century (tajne komplety)^[29] and the influence of the land estates. Kaunas ( ˈkoʊnəs is the second largest City in Lithuania and a former temporary capital. The January Uprising ( Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m ^[29]

Following the demise of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the end of the eighteenth century, the Polonization trends initially continued in Lithuania, Belarus and Polish-dominated parts of Ukraine as the initially liberal policies of the Empire gave the Polish elite significant concessions in the local affairs. The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Dovnar-Zapolsky notes^[30] that the Polonization actually intensified under the liberal rule of Alexander I, particularly due to the efforts of Polish intellectuals who led the Vilnius University which was organized in 1802-1803 from the Academy in Vilna (Schola Princeps Vilnensis), vastly expanded and given the highest Imperial status under the new name Vilna Imperial University (Imperatoria Universitas Vilnensis). Alexander I of Russia ( Russian: Александр I Павлович / Aleksandr I Pavlovich (23 December 1777 – November 19 1825 served as Emperor of Vilnius University (Vilniaus Universitetas formerly known as Vilnius State University, earlier - Stefan Batory University and before that Almae Vilnius University (Vilniaus Universitetas formerly known as Vilnius State University, earlier - Stefan Batory University and before that Almae ^[31] By the Emperor's order, the Vilna education district overseen by Adam Czartoryski, a personal friend of Alexander, was greatly expanded to include the vast territories in the West of the Russian Empire stretching to Kiev in south-east and much of the Polish territory and the development of the University, which had no rival in the whole district, received the highest priority of the Imperial authorities which granted it significant freedom and autonomy. Adam Czartoryski can refer to Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski (1734-1823 Polish nobility Adam Jerzy Czartoryski (1770-1861 Polish statesman The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya ^[31] With the effort of Polish intellectuals who served the rectors of the University, Hieronim Strojnowski, Jan Śniadecki, Szymon Malewski, as well as Czartoryski who oversaw them, the University became the center of Polish patriotism and culture; and as the only University of the district the center attracted the young nobility of all ethnicities from this extensive region. The word rector ("ruler" from the Latin regere and Rector meaning "Teacher" In Latin has a number of different meanings but all of them indicate an academic Jan Śniadecki (archaic John Sniadecki August 29, 1756 November 9, 1830) was a Polish Mathematician, Philosopher ^[31][32]

With time, the traditional Latin was fully eliminated from the University and by 1816 it was fully replaced by Polish and Russian. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. This change both affected and reflected a profound change in the Belarusian and Lithuanian secondary schools systems where Latin was also traditionally used as the University was the main source of the teachers for these schools. Additionally, the University was responsible for the textbooks selection and only Polish textbooks were approved for printing and usage. ^[32]

Dovnar-Zapolsky notes that "the 1800s – 1810s had seen the unprecedented prosperity of the Polish culture and language in the former Great Duchy of Lithuania lands" and "this era has seen the effective completion of the Polonization of the smallest nobility, with further reduction of the areal of use of the contemporary Belarusian language. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova ^[33] also noting that the Polonization trend had been complemented with the (covert) anti-Russian and anti-Orthodox trends. ^[34] The Lithuanian opposition to these development was quieted by various, sometimes even violent means. ^[32] The results of these trends are best reflected in the ethnic censuses in previously non-Polish territories. Following is a list of Censuses that have been taken in the city of Vilnius/Vilna/Wilno/Wilna and its region since 1897

The trends continued with the arrival of Napoleon in 1812. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. The Poles continued to occupy the most important positions in the Vilnius government of Lithuania and following the restoration of the Russian rule the central government policies changed little. Jan Śniadecki, who was promoted under Napoleon times to the rank of the Minister of Education and Cults retained his rectorship due to the Czartoryski's protection. Jan Śniadecki (archaic John Sniadecki August 29, 1756 November 9, 1830) was a Polish Mathematician, Philosopher As Alexander's plan to break Lithuania away from Poland through the restoration of the Grand Duchy became apparent, Sniadecki, supported by Czartoryski, who pretended to be faithful to Tzar, made the last ditch effort to Polonize the young generation of Lithuanians by educating them as Poles that would join the ranks of the strugle for the independent and homogeneous Poland. ^[32]

Following the Polish November Uprising aimed at breaking away from Russia, the Imperial policies changed abruptly. The November Uprising (1830&ndash1831&mdashalso known as the Cadet Revolution &mdashwas an armed rebellion against the rule of the Russian Empire in Poland The University was forcibly closed in 1832 and the following years where characterized by the policies aimed at the assimilationist solution of the "Polish question", the trend that was further strengthen following another unsuccessful January Uprising (1863). The January Uprising ( Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m

In the 19th century, the mostly unchallenged Polonization trend of the previous centuries had been met staunchly by then "anti-Polish" Russification policy, with temporary successes on both sides, like Polonization rises in mid-1850s and in 1880s and Russification strengthenings in 1830s and in 1860s. The terms Polonophobia, anti-Polonism, antipolonism and anti-Polish sentiment refer to a spectrum of hostile attitudes toward Poles. Russification (in Russian: русификация rusifikátsiya)is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attribute (whether voluntarily ^[35] Any Polonization of the east and west territories (Russian and German partitions) occurred in the situation were Poles had steadily diminishing influence on the government. Partition of Poland posed a genuine threat to the continuation of Polish language-culture in those regions. ^[21] As Polonization was centered around Polish culture, policies aimed at weakening and destroying it had a significant impact on weakening Polonization of those regions. This was particularly visible in Russian-occupied Poland, where the Polish culture fared worst, as Russian administration was strongly anti-Polish. The terms Polonophobia, anti-Polonism, antipolonism and anti-Polish sentiment refer to a spectrum of hostile attitudes toward Poles. ^[21] After a brief and relatively liberal early period in the early 19th century, where Poland was allowed to retain some autonomy as the Congress Poland puppet state,^[36] the situation for Polish culture steadily worsened. Congress Poland Kongresówka, officially and formally Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Polskie {{IPA-pl|'|p|o|l|s|kʲ|e}} Царство Польское Tsarstvo Polskoye A puppet state is a State that is nominally independent but in reality under the control of another power

Second Polish Republic

By the times of Second Polish Republic (1918-1939) much of the territories controlled by Poland over a century ago (at the Commonwealth's time), that were historically mixed (partly Ruthenian and partly Polish), had the Ukrainian and Belarusian majority. The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. ^[37] Following the post-World War I rebirth of the Polish statehood, these lands became again disputed but the Poles, who were more successful than the nascent West Ukrainian People's Republic in the Polish-Ukrainian War of 1918. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The West Ukrainian National Republic (Західно-Українська Народна Республика Zakhidno-Ukrayins’ka Narodna Respublyka or ЗУНР ZUNR Thus, in the wake of the Poland's elimination of Ukrainian statehood attempt in Galicia (Eastern Europe) and Volhynia followed by the further westward expansion into Belarus – which the Russian SFSR succeeded to deter only to a degree – these territories ended up under the Polish control. Galicia (Галичина ( Halychyna) Galicja is a historical region in East Central Europe, currently divided between Poland and Ukraine, Approximately one third of the new state's population was non-Catholic,^[38] including a large number of Russian Jews who immigrated to Poland following a wave of Ukranian pogroms which continued until 1921. The Kiev pogroms of 1919 refers to a series of Jewish Pogroms in various places around Kiev carried out by Cossacks and the White Armies ^[39] The Jews were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred and several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic. Riga (Rīga riːga) the Capital of Latvia, is situated on the Baltic Sea coast on the mouth of the river Daugava. ^[40] As such, the young Poland was also forced to learn how to deal with problems resulting from influx of people with different ethnic identities.

The Ukrainian territories of Galicia and Volhynia had different backgrounds, different late histories and different dominant religions. Galicia (Галичина ( Halychyna) Galicja is a historical region in East Central Europe, currently divided between Poland and Ukraine, Until the First World War, Galicia with its largely Greek Catholic Ukrainian population, was controlled by the Austrian Empire whose local policies were relatively pro-Ukrainian (Ruthenian) in an attempt to cement the Austrian control over the territories and prevent the political trends of population's leaning towards the rest of Ukrainians controlled by the Russian Empire. History Before the Union of Brest See also History of Christianity in Ukraine The Ukrainian Catholic church did not exist as such until the The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Such policies resulted in much stronger national self-perception among the Galicia Ukrainians. On the other hand, the Ukrainians of Volhynia, formerly of the Russian Empire, were largely Orthodox by religion, and were influenced by strong Russophile trends. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Russophiles (Ukrainian Pусофіли Rusofily) also referred to in some contexts as Moscophiles, were participants in a cultural and political movement in Western Therefore, while the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC), which functions in communion with the Latin Rite Catholicism, could have hoped to receive a better treatment in Poland, where the leadership saw the Catholicism as one of the main tools to unify the nation, the Poles saw the Greek Catholic Galicia Ukrainians as even less reliable than the Orthodox Volhynia Ukrainians seen as good candidates for the political assimilation. History Before the Union of Brest See also History of Christianity in Ukraine The Ukrainian Catholic church did not exist as such until the Full communion is a term used in Christian Ecclesiology to describe the relationship of communion, with mutually recognized sharing of the same essential The Latin Rite is one of the 23 Sui iuris Particular Churches within the Catholic Church. As such the Polish policy in Ukraine initially was aimed at keeping Greek Catholic Galicians from influencing Orthodox Volhynians. ^[41]

Due to the region's history the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church attained a strong Ukrainian national character, and the Polish authorities sought to weaken it in various ways. History Before the Union of Brest See also History of Christianity in Ukraine The Ukrainian Catholic church did not exist as such until the In 1924, following a visit with the Ukrainian Catholic believers in North America and western Europe, the head of the UGCC was initially denied reentry to Lviv until after a considerable delay. Polish priests led by their bishops began to undertake missionary work among Eastern Rite faithful, and the administrative restrictions were placed on the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. ^[42]

With respect to the Orthodox Ukrainian population in eastern Poland, the Polish government initially issued a decree defending the rights of the Orthodox minorities. The politics of Poland take place in the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic Republic, whereby the Prime Minister In practice, this often failed, as the Catholics, also eager to strengthen their position, had official representation in the Sejm and the courts. Any accusation was strong enough for a particular church to be confiscated and handed over to the Roman Catholic church. 190 Orthodox churches were destroyed (some of the destroyed churches were abandoned^[43] and 150 more were forcibly transformed into Roman Catholic (not Greek Catholic) churches. ^[44] Such actions were condemned by the head of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky, who claimed that these acts would "destroy in the souls of our non-united Orthodox brothers the very thought of any possibility of reunion. In Hierarchical Christian churches the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan, pertains to the Diocesan bishop or Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky (Митрополит Андрей Шептицький July 29, 1865 &mdash November 1, 1944) was the Metropolitan "^[42]

How to deal with the non-Polish minorities was a subject of intense debate within the Polish leadership. Two ideas of Polish policy clashed at the time - a more tolerant and arguably less assimilationist approach advocated by Józef Piłsudski,^[45] whose project of creating a Międzymorze federation with other states failed in the aftermath of the Polish-Soviet War, clashed with the eventually prevailing assimilationist approach advocated by Roman Dmowski (minister of foreign affairs) and Stanisław Grabski (minister of religion and education). Międzymorze was a project pursued after World War I by Józef Piłsudski, of a Polish -led Federation of Central and A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" Roman Dmowski ( August 9, 1864, Warsaw – January 2, 1939, Drozdowo, Poland) was a Polish Stanisław Grabski ( April 5 1871 - May 6 1949) was a Polish economist and politician a National Democracy Ideologue known Dmowski and Grabski saw the solution of the "minorities problem" in imposing "Polish values" (Polish language and the Catholic Church) on the minorities to achieve "national assimilation", i. e. to make them "Polish" within the "next generation". ^[41] On the other hand, Józef Piłsudski, a Polish chief of State who also controlled the army, supported "state" rather than "national" assimilation as a more practical approach. Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a Monarchic or Republican Nation-state

As most of the Polish government was initially controlled by Roman Dmowski, National Democratic leader and a strong proponent of Polonization,^[46] policies based on his views were implemented. Roman Dmowski ( August 9, 1864, Warsaw – January 2, 1939, Drozdowo, Poland) was a Polish Narodowa Demokracja (National Democracy also known from its initials ND as " Endecja," was a Polish Right-wing ^[47] Dmowski is quoted as having said: "Wherever we can multiply our forces and our civilizational efforts, absorbing other elements, no law can prohibit us from doing so, as such actions are our duty. "^[48] The ND policies alienated Poland's minorities to such an extent that, even after Piłsudski gained power in 1926, his attempted modest reforms did not affect the attitude of the minorities. ^[41]

When the territories of Western Belarus, Western Ukraine and the Wilno region were incorporated into Poland after the Treaty of Riga, Poland rejected its international obligations to grant autonomy to eastern Galicia^[10], which she had never intended to honor. West Belarus is the name sometimes used in a historical context to denote the territory of modern Belarus that belonged to the Second Polish Republic between the The Peace of Riga, also known as the Treaty of Riga; (Ри́жский ми́рный договóр -- Romanisation Rízhsky Mírny dogovór --, Rīgas Galicia (Галичина ( Halychyna) Galicja is a historical region in East Central Europe, currently divided between Poland and Ukraine, ^{[49][broken footnote]} Linguistic assimilation was considered by National Democrats to be a major factor for "unifying the state. Narodowa Demokracja (National Democracy also known from its initials ND as " Endecja," was a Polish Right-wing " For example, Stanisław Grabski, Polish Minister for Religion and Public Education in 1923 and 1925-1926, wrote that "Poland may be preserved only as a state of Polish people. Stanisław Grabski ( April 5 1871 - May 6 1949) was a Polish economist and politician a National Democracy Ideologue known If it were a state of Poles, Jews, Germans, Rusyns, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Russians, it would lose its independence again"; and that "it is impossible to make a nation out of those who have no 'national self-identification,' who call themselves 'local' (tutejszy). Poleszuk ( Polish spelling Паляшук Palašuk; Поліщук Polishchuk; Полещук Poleshchuk) is the name given to the people ". Grabski also said that the aim of Polish policy should be "the transformation of the Commonwealth into Polish ethnic territory. "^[50][51] Some officials denied the existence of the Ukrainian and Belarusian nations altogether.

A law issued in 1924 banned usage of any language but Polish in governmental and municipal paperwork. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. It the area of public education it was postulated that state schools could be only Polish language schools. ^[41] Local populations could have private local language schools, but only in territories "loyal to the Polish state". Specifically with respect to the Eastern territories (known as Kresy Wschodnie, or "Eastern Borderlands") it was recognized that "schools can become an instrument of the cultural development in Eastern lands only if Polish teachers will work there". The term Kresy, meaning Outskirts or Borderlands, was first used to define the Polish eastern frontier It turned out to be infeasible for implementation and, in particular cases, bilingual schools ("utraquist schools", szkoły utrakwistyczne) were proposed, while in reality those schools were functionally the Polish language ones. An utraquist school or utraquist gymnasium is a term for Bilingual Schools in some countries in which the subjects were taught both in a State language ^[41]

In internal politics, Piłsudski's reign marked a much-needed stabilization and improvement in the situation of ethnic minorities, which formed almost a third of the population of the Second Republic. Piłsudski replaced the National-Democratic "ethnic-assimilation" with a "state-assimilation" policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality. Narodowa Demokracja (National Democracy also known from its initials ND as " Endecja," was a Polish Right-wing ^[41] The years 1926-1935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Piłsudski’s appointee Kazimierz Bartel. The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over a Millennium. Kazimierz Bartel ( 3 March 1882 &ndash 26 July 1941) was a Polish mathematician and politician who served as Prime Minister of Poland ^[52] However a combination of various reasons, from the Great Depression,^[41] through the Pisłudski's need for support from parties for the parliament's election^[41] to the vicious spiral of terrorist attacks by Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and government pacifications^[53][41] meant that the situation continued to degenerate, despite Piłsudski's efforts. A virtuous circle or a vicious circle is a complex of events that reinforces itself through a Feedback loop toward greater instability Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists or OUN (Організація Українських Націоналістів Orhanizatsiya Ukrayins’kykh Natsionalistiv The attitude of Ukrainians of that time is well shown in the statements by the reputable Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky, who noted negative influence of Polish policies on the Ukrainian culture: "the four centuries of Polish rule had left particularly destructive effects (. Mykhailo Serhiyovych Hrushevsky (Михайло Сергійович Грушевський Chełm ( — Kislovodsk, 26 November, 1934) was The Culture of Ukraine is a result of influence over millennia from the West and East with an assortment of strong culturally-identified Ethnic groups . . ) economic and cultural backwardness in Galicia was the main "legacy of historical Poland, which assiduously skimmed everything that could be considered the cream of the nation, leaving it in a state of oppression and helplessness". Galicia (Галичина ( Halychyna) Galicja is a historical region in East Central Europe, currently divided between Poland and Ukraine, ^[54]

The land reform designed to favour the Poles^[55] in mostly Ukrainian populated Volhynia, the agricultural territory where the land question was especially severe, brought the alienation from the Polish state of even the Orthodox Volhynian population who tended to be much less radical than the Greek Catholic Calicians. ^[41]

After the Polish legislative election, 1930, Belarusian representation in the Polish parliament was reduced and since the early 1930s the Polish government started to introduce policies intended to Polonize the minorities. Polish legislative election 1930, also known as the Brest elections (Wybory brzeskie were the Elections to the Sejm (Polish parliament on 16 November Polish parliament (sv Polsk riksdag) is a Scandinavian expression referring to the historical Polish parliaments. In 1938 about 100 abandoned^[43]Orthodox churches were destroyed or converted to Roman Catholic in the eastern parts of Poland. Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[56] The use of Belarusian language was discouraged. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova There wasn't a Belarusian school in the spring of 1939, and only 44 schools teaching Belarusian language existed in Poland at the beginning of World War II. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

Situation of Lithuanians also was getting worse. During the interwar period of the 20th century (1920-1939) Lithuanian-Polish relations were characterised by mutual enmity. Starting with the conflict over the city of Vilnius (Wilno), and the Polish-Lithuanian War shortly after the First World War, both governments - in the era nationalism was sweeping through Europe - treated their respective minorities harshly. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All ^{[57] [58] [59]} Beginning 1920, after the staged mutiny of Lucjan Żeligowski Lithuanian cultural activities in Polish controlled territories were limited; closure of newspapers and arrest of editors occurred. Lucjan Żeligowski (1865-1947 was a Polish General, and veteran of World War I, the Polish-Soviet War and World War II. ^[60] One of them - Mykolas Biržiška was accused of state treason and sentenced to a death penalty, only direct intervention by the League of Nations saved him from this fate. Mykolas Biržiška ( 24 August, 1882 in Viekšniai - 24 August, 1962 in Los Angeles) a Lithuanian editor Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 He was one of 32 Lithuanian and Belarussian cultural activists formally expelled from Vilnius on September 20, 1922 and turned over to Lithuanian army. ^[60] In 1927, as tensions between Lithuania and Poland arose furthermore 48 Lithuanian schools were closed and another 11 Lithuanian activist were deported. ^[57] Following Piłsudski's death in 1935, Lithuanian minority in Poland again became an object of Polonisation policies, more intensive this time. Lithuanian minority in Poland consists of 5639 people living chiefly in the Podlaskie Voivodeship in the north-eastern part of Poland (according to the Polish Polonization (polonizacja is the acquisition or imposition 266 Lithuanian schools were closed since 1936 and almost all organizations were banned. Further Polonisation was ensued as the government encouraged settlement of Polish army veterans in disputed regions. Osadniks (osadnik/osadnicy "settler/settlers" was the Polish Loanword used in Soviet Union for Veterans of the Polish Army that were ^[61] About 400 Lithuanian reading rooms and libraries were closed in Poland in 1936-1938. ^[58] The Polonization of Lithuanians became reduced with more relaxed government policies only after Lithuania re-established diplomatic relations with Poland in 1938.

Polonization of the economy was advanced by Polish statism. Statism (or Etatism) is a very loose and often Derogatory term that is used to describe Specific instances of state intervention in personal social Lack of private capital in the country after the First World War, and later state interventions and takeovers of politically important sectors in the aftermath of the Great Depression, increasingly expanded the government economic sector. From 1931 on, the state industrial sector grew more rapidly than the private sector, however the Jewish minority was excluded from this sector of the economy. Even facing acute shortage of engineers, the responsible authorities preferred to leave positions vacant than fill them with Jewish experts ^[62] Jews were also excluded from local administrations. In Lublin, where Jews made up about 40% of the population, only 2. Lublin is the largest city in eastern Poland and the capital of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 355954 6% of municipal workers were Jews; in Warsaw 16% of the Poles, and only 0. 8% of Jews, were employed in the state or public sectors ^[63]. Efforts to Polonize the economy also affected Jews employed in the private sector. Boycotts of Jewish businesses were instigated by National-Democratic groups such as the League of the Green Band (Liga Zielonej Wstążki). Narodowa Demokracja (National Democracy also known from its initials ND as " Endecja," was a Polish Right-wing The Catholic Church and Polish government condoned this Polonization of the economy especially after the National Democrats gained control of the government in 1937. ^[64].

However, Polonization also created a new educated class among the non-Polish minorities, a class of intellectuals aware of the importance of schooling, press, literature and theatre, who became instrumental in the development of their own ethnic identities. ^[65]

Some scholars emphasize the importance of the interwar government's Polonization policies for the preservation of Polish statehood in the long term. ^[66]

Post–World War II

Ethnic Germans still living in the western territories gained by Poland (determined by Tehran Conference by Stalin in the aftermath of World War II - e. The Tehran Conference ( Codenamed EUREKA) was the meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party g. Silesia) were denied the use of their language in public by the Communist regime and they had to adopt the Polish language and citizenship to evade discrimination, expropriation and insult. Some 180,000 were sent to forced work camps like camp Tost, camp Potulice or camp Lamsdorf. Toszek (Tost is a town in Poland, in Gliwice County, Silesian Voivodeship, with 4000 inhabitants Central Labour Camp Potulice (Centralny Obóz Pracy w Potulicach was a Detention centre for Germans and Poles established by Polish Communist Łambinowice (Lamsdorf is a village in western Poland in the voivodeship of Opole, close to the town of Nysa. ^[67] Their situation improved in 1950 with the Treaty of Zgorzelec between Poland and the GDR. The Treaty of Zgorzelec (Full title The Agreement Concerning the Demarcation of the Established and the Existing Polish-German State Frontier, also known as the Treaty of The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state Western Germany however did not recognize this agreement. Until 1953 there were 55 German basic schools and 2 higher German schools in Poland. The Germans enjoy a formally recognized status of an ethnic minority in modern Poland.

During Operation Wisła in 1947, the Ukrainian and Rusyn populations were forcibly resettled from their historic territories in the south-east of Poland to northern areas of the territories awarded by the Allies to Poland in the post-war settlement. This article is about the 1947 deportation of Ukrainians by the Polish government Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Recovered or Regained Territories (Ziemie Odzyskane was the official term used by the Polish post-war authorities to denote those territories which were transferred The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. According to the order of the Ministry of Recovered Territories, "the main goal of the relocation of settlers "W" is their assimilation in a new Polish environment, all efforts should be exerted to achieve those goals. Recovered or Regained Territories (Ziemie Odzyskane was the official term used by the Polish post-war authorities to denote those territories which were transferred Do not apply the term "Ukrainians" towards the settlers. In cases when the intelligentsia element reaches the recovered territories, they should by all means be settled separately and away from the communities of the "W" settlers. "^[68]

Ethnicity of notable figures

As a consequence of the process of cultural Polonization, disputes occur as to the ethnicity of some notable persons such as Tadeusz Kościuszko, Adam Mickiewicz and Ignacy Domeyko, who are claimed as national celebrities by Poles, Belarusians and Lithuanians alike. Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko (; 1746 &ndash 1817 was a Polish and American national hero and general Adam Bernard Mickiewicz (pronounced ] in Belarusian, Адам Міцкевіч; in Lithuanian, Adomas Bernardas Mickevičius; December Ignacy Domeyko (Ignacio Domeyko Ігнат Дамейка Ignacy Domejko Ignotas Domeika born near Nesvizh, Belarus July 31, 1802 – January The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. Belarusians or Belorussians (Беларусы Biełarusy previously also spelled Belarussians, Byelorussians and Belorusians, also Lithuanians are the Baltic Ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number a little over 3 million

References

External links

• Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage
• The Polonization of the Ukrainian Nobility
• (Polish) Założenia programowe głównych obozów politycznych wobec szkolnictwa dla ludności białoruskiej w II Rzeczypospolitej

Further reading

• Subtelny, Orest (1988). Orest Subtelny (b 1943 in Kraków) - is a Canadian Historian of Ukrainian descent Ukraine: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-5808-6.  

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