Pollination is an important step in the reproduction of seed plants: the transfer of pollen grains (containing the male gametes, sperm) to the plant carpel of flowering plants, the structure that contains the ovule (which in turn houses the female gamete(s)), or directly to the ovule itself in gymnosperms. Carpenter bees (the genus Xylocopa in the subfamily Xylocopinae) are large hairy bees distributed worldwide Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced The spermatophytes (from the Greek word "Σπερματόφυτα" (also known as phanerogams) comprise those Plants that produce Seeds They are Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of A gynoecium (from Ancient Greek gyne, "woman" is the Female reproductive part of a Flower. Ovule literally means "small egg." In Seed plants the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells The receptive part of the carpel is called a stigma in the flowers of angiosperms. A gynoecium (from Ancient Greek gyne, "woman" is the Female reproductive part of a Flower. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group The receptive part of the gymnosperm ovule is called the micropyle. Gymnosperm (Gymnospermae are a group of Spermatophyte seed-bearing Plants with Ovules on the edge or blade of an open Sporophyll, which are The study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany, horticulture, entomology, and ecology. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation Entomology (from Greek grc ἔντομος entomos, "that which is cut in pieces or engraved/segmented" hence "insect" and grc -λογία Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Pollination is important in horticulture because most plant fruits will not develop if the ovules are not fertilized. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. For soil improvement see Fertilization (soil. The pollination process as interaction between flower and vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from Christian Konrad Sprengel ( 22 September 1750 &ndash 7 April 1816) was a German Theologist, Teacher and most
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Types
The process of pollination requires pollinators: agents that carry or move the pollen grains from the anther to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil. A pollinator is the biotic agent ( vector) that moves Pollen from the male Anthers of a Flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish The stamen ( Plural stamina or stamens, from Latin stamen meaning "thread of the warp " is the male The various flower traits that attract different pollinators are known as pollination syndromes. Pollination syndromes are suites of traits of Flowers aimed at attracting a particular type of Pollinator (Faegri & van der Pijl 1979 Proctor et al Methods of pollination, with common pollinators or plants, are:
Biotic pollination, occurs when pollination is mediated by an organism, termed a pollinator. A pollinator is the biotic agent ( vector) that moves Pollen from the male Anthers of a Flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish There are roughly 200,000 varieties of animal pollinators in the wild, most of which are insects. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described [1] Entomophily, pollination by insects, often occurs on plants that have developed blue petals and a strong scent to attract insects such as, bees, wasps and occasionally ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera), and flies (Diptera). See also Pollination syndrome Entomophily is a form of pollination whereby Pollen is distributed by Insects particularly Bees Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Hymenoptera is one of the larger orders of Insects comprising the sawflies, Wasps Bees and Ants The name refers to Beetles are the group of Insects with the largest number of known Species. Beetles are the group of Insects with the largest number of known Species. Lepidoptera is an order of Insect that includes Moths and butterflies. True flies are Insects of the Order Diptera ( Greek: di = two and pteron = wing possessing a single pair of In Zoophily, pollination is done by vertebrates such as birds and bats, particularly, hummingbirds, sunbirds, spiderhunters, honeyeaters, and fruit Bats. See also Pollination syndrome Zoophily is a form of Pollination whereby pollen is transferred by Vertebrates particularly by Hummingbirds Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Hummingbirds are Birds in the family Trochilidae, and are endemic to the Americas. The sunbirds and '''spiderhunters''' are very small Passerine Birds which feed largely on Nectar, although they will also take insects especially The spiderhunters are birds of the Genus Arachnothera, part of the Sunbird family The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family of small to medium sized birds most common in Australia and New Guinea, For other uses of the term "Flying fox" see Flying fox (disambiguation Megabats is the term used informally to refer to bats Plants adapted to this strategy tend to develop red petals to attract birds and rarely develop a scent because few birds have a sense of smell.
Abiotic pollination occurs when pollination is mediated without the involvement of other organisms. Only 10% of flowering plants are able to pollinate without animal assistance. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also [1] For example, anemophily is pollination by wind. See also Pollination syndrome Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of Pollination whereby Pollen is distributed by Wind Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) This form of pollination is very common in grasses, most conifers, and many deciduous trees. Poaceae or Gramineae is a family in the Class Liliopsida of the flowering plants. Hydrophily is pollination by water and occurs in aquatic plants which release their seeds directly into the surrounding water. See also Pollination syndrome Hydrophily is a fairly uncommon form of Pollination whereby Pollen is distributed by the flow of Waters Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. About 80% of all plant pollination is biotic. Of the 20% of abiotically pollinated species, 98% is by wind and 2% by water. In Biology, abiotic components are non-living Chemical and Physical factors in the environment. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life.
In agriculture
Pollination management is a branch of agriculture that seeks to protect and enhance present pollinators and often involves the culture and addition of pollinators in monoculture situations, such as commercial fruit orchards. Pollination Management is the label for horticultural practices that accomplish or enhance Pollination of a crop to improve yield or quality by understanding of the particular Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area An orchard is an intentional planting of Trees or Shrubs maintained for Food production. The largest managed pollination event in the world is in Californian almond orchards, where nearly half (about one million hives) of the US honey bees are trucked to the almond orchards each spring. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. The Almond ( Prunus dulcis, syn Prunus amygdalus Batsch Amygdalus communis L A beehive is in a general sense an enclosed structure in which some species of Honey bees (genus Apis) live and raise their young This article refers collectively to all true honey bees for the "common" domesticated honey bee see European honey bee Honey bees New York's apple crop requires about 30,000 hives; Maine's blueberry crop uses about 50,000 hives each year. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. The State of Maine ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean Blueberries are Flowering plants in the genus Vaccinium, sect
Bees are also brought to commercial plantings of cucumbers, squash, melons, strawberries, and many other crops. The cucumber ( Cucumis sativus) is a widely cultivated plant in the Gourd family Cucurbitaceae, which includes squash, and in the same Squashes generally refer to four species of the genus Cucurbita native to the Mexico and Central America, also called marrows depending Melon is a term used for various members of the Cucurbitaceae family with fleshy fruit Garden strawberries are a common variety of strawberry cultivated worldwide Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: other species of bees are also raised as pollinators. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. The alfalfa leafcutter bee is an important pollinator for alfalfa seed in western United States and Canada. The Alfalfa Leafcutter Bee ( Megachile rotundata) is a European species of bee that has been cultured in the United States for Pollination Alfalfa ( Medicago sativa) is a flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae cultivated as an important forage crop A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Bumblebees are increasingly raised and used extensively for greenhouse tomatoes and other crops. A bumblebee (or bumble bee) is any member of the Bee Genus Bombus, in the family Apidae; there are over 250 known species primarily A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse or hothouse) is a building where plants are cultivated The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family
The ecological and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to agricultural crops, improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial opportunities. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The vicinity of a forest or wild grasslands with native pollinators near agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or coffee can improve their yield by about 20%. A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria Grasslands (also called greenswards) are areas where the Vegetation is dominated by Grasses ( Poaceae) and other Herbaceous (non-woody This article discusses the coffee plant for information on the beverage see Coffee. The benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in the improved crop results - a simple example of the economic value of ecological services.
The American Institute of Biological Sciences reports that native insect pollination saves the United States agricultural economy nearly an estimated $3. The American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS is a Nonprofit scientific association dedicated to advancing biological research and education The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture 1 billion annually through natural crop production;[2] pollination produces some $40 billion worth of products annually in the United States alone. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [1]
Pollination of food crops has become an environmental issue, due to two trends. The environmental movement, a term that includes the conservation and green movements is a diverse scientific social and Political movement for The trend to monoculture means that greater concentrations of pollinators are needed at bloom time than ever before, yet the area is forage poor or even deadly to bees for the rest of the season. Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area For Bees their forage or food supply consists of Nectar and Pollen from blooming Plants within flight range The other trend is the decline of pollinator populations, due to pesticide misuse and overuse, new diseases and parasites of bees, clearcut logging, decline of beekeeping, suburban development, removal of hedges and other habitat from farms, and public paranoia about bees. The term Pollinator decline refers to the reduction in abundance of Pollinators in many Ecosystems worldwide during the end of the twentieth century A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Clearcutting or clearfelling is a Forestry / Logging practice in which the clear majority of all trees in a forest sector are cut down South San Jose (cropjpg||thumb|A suburban development in San Jose California. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. A farm is an area of land including various structures devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food ( Produce, Grains, or Livestock Paranoia is a disturbed thought process characterized by excessive Anxiety or Fear, often to the point of Irrationality and Delusion. Widespread aerial spraying for mosquitoes due to West Nile fears is causing an acceleration of the loss of pollinators. An agricultural aircraft is an Aircraft that has been built or converted for Agricultural use - usually Aerial application of Pesticides Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs West Nile virus (or WNV is a Virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE antigenic complex of viruses it is found in
The US solution to the pollinator shortage, so far, has been for commercial beekeepers to become pollination contractors and to migrate. An independent contractor is a Natural person, Business or Corporation which provides goods or services to another entity under terms Just as the combine harvesters follow the wheat harvest from Texas to Manitoba, beekeepers follow the bloom from south to north, to provide pollination for many different crops. The combine harvester, or simply combine, also known as a thresher is a machine that combines the Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. In Agriculture, the harvest is the process of Gathering mature crops from the fields Reaping is the cutting of Grain Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. Manitoba (English ˌmænɨˈtoʊbə French /manitoba/ is a province of Canada, spanning 647797 square kilometres (250116 sq mi of North America
Pollinators and pollenizers
Pollination also requires consideration of pollenizers. A pollenizer or polleniser, sometimes pollinizer or polliniser (see spelling differences) is a Plant that provides Pollen (The terms "pollinator" and "pollenizer" are often confused: a pollinator is the agent that moves the pollen, whether it be wind, bees, bats, moths, or birds; a pollenizer is the plant that provides the pollen. ) Some plants are self-fertile or self-compatible and can pollinate themselves. Self-incompatibility ( SI) is a general name for several genetic mechanisms in Angiosperms, which prevent Self-fertilization and thus encourage Outcrossing Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to self-pollination and need to be cross-pollinated: with these self-infertile plants, not only pollinators must be considered but pollenizers as well. Self-pollination is a form of Pollination that can occur when a Flower has both Stamen and a Carpel in which the Cultivar or In pollination management, a good pollenizer is a plant that provides compatible, viable and plentiful pollen and blooms at the same time as the plant that is to be pollinated.
Pollination can be cross-pollination with a pollinator and an external pollenizer, self-pollenization with a pollinator, or self-pollination without any pollinator:
- Cross-pollination (syngamy): pollen is delivered to a flower of a different plant. Plants adapted to outcross or cross-pollinise have taller stamens than carpels to better spread pollen to other flowers.
- Self-pollenization (autogamy): pollen moves to the female part of the same flower, or to another flower on the same individual plant. This is sometimes referred to as self-pollination, but this is not synonymous with autogamy. Clarity requires that the term "self-pollination" be restricted to those plants that accomplish pollination without an external pollinator (example: the stamens actually grow into contact with the pistil to transfer the pollen). Most peach varieties are autogamous, but not truly self-pollinated, as it is generally an insect pollinator that moves the pollen from anther to stigma. The peach ( Prunus persica) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit also called a peach Plants adapted to self-fertilize have similar stamen and carpel length.
- Cleistogamy: pollination that occurs before the flower opens is always self-pollination. Some cleistogamous flowers never open, in contrast to chasmogamous flowers that open and are then pollinated. Cleistogamous flowers must of necessity be self-compatible or self-fertile plants. Other plants are self-incompatible. These are end points on a continuum, not absolute points.
Hybridization is effective pollination between flowers of different species of the same genus, or even between flowers of different genera (as in the case of several orchids). In Biology, hybrid has two meanings The first meaning is the result of interbreeding between two animals or plants of different taxa. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic
Peaches are considered self-fertile because a commercial crop can be produced without cross-pollination, though cross-pollination usually gives a better crop. The peach ( Prunus persica) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit also called a peach Apples are considered self-incompatible, because a commercial crop must be cross-pollinated. Remember that most fruits are grafted clones, genetically identical. Grafting is a method of asexual Plant propagation widely used in Agriculture and Horticulture where the tissues of one Plant are encouraged to Cloning in Biology is the process of producing populations of genetically-identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as Bacteria, Insects Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is An orchard block of apples of one variety is in effect all one plant. Growers now consider this a mistake. One means of correcting this mistake is to graft a limb of an appropriate pollenizer (generally a variety of crabapple) every six trees or so. Malus, the apples, is a genus of about 30–35 species of small Deciduous Trees or Shrubs in the family Rosaceae.
Honey bee pollination
Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar (later converted to honey), and pollen grains. This article refers collectively to all true honey bees for the "common" domesticated honey bee see European honey bee Honey bees Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the The bee collects the pollen by rubbing against the anthers. The pollen collects on the hind legs, in dense hairs referred to as a pollen basket. The pollen basket or corbicula is part of the tibia on the hind legs of the four related lineages of apid bees that used to comprise the family Apidae As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers.
Nectar provides the energy for bee nutrition; pollen provides the protein. Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl When bees are rearing large quantities of brood (beekeepers say hives are "building"), bees deliberately gather pollen to meet the nutritional needs of the brood. In Entomology, the term brood is used to refer to the embryo or egg, the Larva and the Pupa stages in the life of holometabolous A honey bee that is deliberately gathering pollen is up to ten times more efficient as a pollinator than one that is primarily gathering nectar and only unintentionally transferring pollen.
Good pollination management seeks to have bees in a "building" state during the bloom period of the crop, thus requiring them to gather pollen, and making them more efficient pollinators. Thus the management techniques of a beekeeper providing pollination services are different from, and somewhat incompatible with, those of a beekeeper who is trying to produce honey. A beekeeper is a person who keeps Honey bees for the purposes of securing commodities such as Honey, Beeswax, Pollen; pollinating
Other species of bees differ in various details of their behavior and pollen-gathering habits, and it should be remembered that honey bees are not native to the Western Hemisphere; all pollination of native plants in the Americas has been historically performed by various native bees. The Western Hemisphere, also Western hemisphere or western hemisphere, is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies West
Number of hives needed per acre (4,000 m²) of crop pollination
- Apples: 1–2
- Blueberries: 4
- Cantaloupe: 2–4
- Cucumber 1–2
- Squash: 1
- Watermelon: 1–3
It is estimated that about one hive per acre will sufficiently pollinate watermelons. The Mohawk Valley ( Yenęˀná•ˀna•č in Tuscarora) region of the U New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous In the 1950s when the woods were full of wild bee trees, and beehives were normally kept on most South Carolina farms, a farmer who grew ten acres (40,000 m²) of watermelons would be a large grower and probably had all the pollination needed. South Carolina ( is a state in the southern region ( Deep South) of the United States of America. But today's grower may grow 200 acres (800,000 m²), and, if lucky, there might be one bee tree left within range. The only option in the current economy is to bring beehives to the field during blossom time.
Source: Delaplaine et al. 1994, Bee pollination of Georgia crop plants. CES Bulletin 1106.
See also
- Fruit tree pollination
- Hand pollination
- List of plants pollinated by bees
- Self-pollination
- Domestication
- Pollination syndromes
- Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser - A Supreme Court of Canada lawsuit involving a farmer who was sued by Monsanto for having genetically modified plants on his farm. Apple Most Apples are self incompatible and must be cross pollinated. Hand pollination (also called "mechanical pollination" is a technique used when natural or Open pollination is insufficient or undesirable Self-pollination is a form of Pollination that can occur when a Flower has both Stamen and a Carpel in which the Cultivar or Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals Pollination syndromes are suites of traits of Flowers aimed at attracting a particular type of Pollinator (Faegri & van der Pijl 1979 Proctor et al Monsanto Canada Inc v Schmeiser 1 SCR 902 2004 SCC 34 is a leading Supreme Court of Canada case on Patent rights for Biotechnology. The farmer claimed that the wind blew the seeds onto his land, and therefore did not violate any patents.
References
- ^ a b c US Forest Department: Pollinator Factsheet
- ^ BioScience, April 2006, Vol. 56 No. 4, pp. 315-317
- Dafni, Amots; Kevan, Peter G. ; and Husband, Brian C. (2005). Practical Pollination Biology. Enviroquest, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-9680123-0-7.
External links
- New "Pollinator Garden Wheel" from the National Academies provides information on pollination and tips on building a pollinator-friendly garden.
- Insect Pollination Of Cultivated Crop Plants by S. E. McGregor USDA 1972 (needs updating but still valuable)
- The Pollination Home page
- Pulse of the Planet description of buzz pollination
- Pollination syndromes images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu