Political science is a branch of social science that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural Political Science is often described as the study of who gets what, where, when and why. Discovering a proper balance between the individual, the society and its Government for civilization and human progress is paramount.
Fields and subfields of political science include political theory and philosophy, civics and comparative politics, theory of direct democracy, apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, international relations, foreign policy, international law, politics, public administration, administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and public policy. Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Civics is the study of citizenship and government with particular attention given to the role of citizens― as opposed to external factors― in the operation and oversight of government Comparative politics is a subfield of Political science, characterized by an empirical approach based on the comparative method. Direct Democracy is a movement within the British Conservative Party dedicated to localism and Constitutional reform as a means of reviving public Foreign Policy is a bimonthly American Magazine founded in 1970 by Samuel P International law is the term commonly used for referring to the system of implicit and explicit agreements that bind together nation-states in adherence to recognized values and standards Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy. Political science also studies power in international relations and the theory of Great powers and Superpowers. Power in international relations is defined in several different ways A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale A superpower is a State with a leading position in the international system and the ability to Influence events and project power on a worldwide scale
Political science is methodologically diverse. Approaches to the discipline include classical political philosophy, interpretivism, structuralism, and behavioralism, realism, pluralism, and institutionalism. For the use of structuralism in biology see Structuralism (biology Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze Behavioralism (not to be confused with the learning theory Behaviorism) is an approach in Political science which seeks to provide an objective quantified approach Contemporary philosophical realism is the belief in a Reality that is completely Ontologically independent of our conceptual schemes linguistic practices beliefs Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, and model building. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Sampling is that part of Statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population of concern Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data.
Contents |
Overview
Political scientists study the allocation and transfer of power in decision-making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political behavior and public policies. They measure the success of governance and specific policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, and peace. Governance relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. Some political scientists seek to advance positive theses by analyzing politics. In the Humanities and Social sciences, the term positive is used in a number of ways Others advance normative theses, by making specific policy recommendations. Normative has specialized meanings in several academic disciplines
Political Scientists provide the frameworks that journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and the electorate analyze issues. Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in political parties or as civil servants. They may be involved with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capacities, people educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to corporations. Private enterprises such as think tanks, research institutes, polling and public relations firms often employ political scientists. A think tank (also called a policy institute) is an organization institute corporation or group that conducts Research and engages in advocacy in areas such Public relations (PR is the practice of managing the flow of Information between an Organization and its Publics Public relations - often referred In the United States, political scientists known as "Americanists" look at a variety of data including elections, public opinion and public policy such as Social Security reform, foreign policy, U. An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office That the manufacture of consent is capable of great refinements no one I think denies S. congressional power, and the U.S. Supreme Court—to name only a few issues. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary.
Most American colleges and universities offer B. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Higher education in the United States refers to a variety of institutions of Higher education in the United States. A. programs in political science. M. A. and Ph. D programs are common at larger universities. Some universities offer B. S or M. S. degrees. [1] The term political science is more popular in North America than elsewhere; other institutions, especially those outside the United States, see political science as part of a broader discipline of political studies, politics, or government. While political science implies use of the scientific method, political studies implies a broader approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their content. [2]
History
Antecedents
Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences. While the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece and ancient India, political science is a late arrival in terms of Social sciences. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal state. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Normative has specialized meanings in several academic disciplines A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
In ancient India, the antecedents of politics can be traced back to the Rig-Veda, Samhitas, Brahmanas, and Buddhist Pali Canon. This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Chanakya (c. Chanakya Sanskrit: चाणक्य Cāṇakya) (c 350-283 BC was an adviser and a Prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor 350-275 BC) was a professor of political science at Takshashila University, and later the Prime Minister of Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya. For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Chandragupta Maurya (चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born c Chanakya is regarded as one of the earliest political thinkers, and is also known as the Indian Machiavelli. Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights He wrote the Arthashastra, which was one of the earliest treatises on political thought, economics and social order, and can be considered a precursor to Machiavelli's The Prince. The Arthashastra ( IAST: Arthaśāstra) is a Treatise on statecraft, economic policy and Military strategy which Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Il Principe ( The Prince) is a political Treatise by the Florentine public servant and political theorist It discusses monetary and fiscal policies, welfare, international relations, and war strategies in detail, among other topics on political science. The ancient Tamil literary work Thirukural written 2000 years back has extensively dealt with political science. The topics discussed by Thirukural include the art of public administration, warfare, political diplomacy, civil society, espionage, qualifications for public office, public revenue and financial administration and local administration.
The antecedents of Western politics can also trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Euripides ( Ancient Greek:) (ca 480 BC–406 BC was the last of the three great tragedians of classical Athens (the other two being Aeschylus Later, Plato analysed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between church and state were clarified and contested in this period.
In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's works. Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ( Persian: رباعیات عمر خیام The Rubáiyát ( Arabic: رباعیات is a collection of Poems Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience.
During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century
Studies
Since Political Science is essentially a study of human behavior, observations in controlled environments are usually not available and impossible to reproduce or duplicate. Because of this Political Scientists seek patterns in the reasons and outcomes for political events so that generalizations and theories can be made. Again, study is still difficult since humans make conscious choices unlike other subjects in science, such as organisms, or even inanimate objects as in physics. Despite the complexities, consensus has been reached on various political topics with the help of proper study.
The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the late 19th century. In fact, the designation "political scientist" is typically reserved for those with a doctorate in the field. Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both normative and positive political science, with each part of the discipline sharing some historical predecessors. In the Humanities and Social sciences, the term positive is used in a number of ways The American Political Science Association was founded in 1903 and the American Political Science Review was founded in 1906 in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomena. The American Political Science Association ( APSA) is an organization dedicated to Political science. The American Political Science Review ( APSR) is the flagship publication of the American Political Science Association and the most prestigious
In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioural revolution stressing the systematic and rigorously scientific study of individual and group behaviour swept the discipline. At the same time that political science moved toward greater depth of analysis, it also moved toward a closer working relationship with other disciplines, especially sociology, economics, history, anthropology, psychology, public administration and statistics. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. Increasingly, students of political behaviour have used the scientific method to create an intellectual discipline based on the postulating of hypotheses followed by empirical verification and the inference of political trends, and of generalizations that explain individual and group political actions. Over the past generation, the discipline placed an increasing emphasis on relevance, or the use of new approaches and methodologies to solve political and social problems.
Political science has, broadly, five subfields: international relations, political theory, public policy and public administration, national politics, and comparative politics. Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy. Comparative politics is a subfield of Political science, characterized by an empirical approach based on the comparative method. Separate degree granting programs in international relations and public policy are not uncommon at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Master's level programs in public administration are common.
The national honour society for college and university students of government and politics in the United States is Pi Sigma Alpha. Pi Sigma Alpha ( ΠΣΑ or PSA) is an Honor society for students and faculty of Political science and International relations in the
References
- ^ Schools offering the B. S. or M. S. in political science include: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Illinois Institute of Technology, University of Idaho, Arizona State University, Northern Arizona University and others. Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT is a private PhD-granting university located in the greater Chicago Illinois area with programs in Engineering, Science, The University of Idaho is Idaho 's oldest public university located in the rural city of Moscow in Latah County. Arizona State University ( ASU) is the largest public Research university in the United States under a single administration with total student Northern Arizona University (NAU is a Public university in Flagstaff Arizona in the United States.
- ^ See the example of New York University in particular. New York University ( NYU) is a private, Nonsectarian, Coeducational Research University in New York City. The term politics is used at:
- University of California, Santa Cruz, Ursinus College, Brandeis University, Cornell College, Occidental College, New York University, Monash University, Mount Holyoke College, Princeton University, Hendrix College, Lake Forest College, and Washington and Lee University
- Smith College, Colby College, Dartmouth College, Bowdoin College, Harvard University, Cornell University, Georgetown University, the University of Texas at Austin, the College of William and Mary, the University of Sydney, the University of Ulster, the University of Essex, Victoria University of Wellington (which has both a School of Government and a separate Political Science and International Relations Programme) and the London School of Economics and Political Science to describe the field. Ursinus College is a liberal arts college in Collegeville, Montgomery County Pennsylvania. Brandeis University is a private research University with a Liberal arts focus located in Waltham Massachusetts, United States. This article is about the liberal arts college in Mount Vernon Iowa Occidental College is a small private coeducational liberal arts college located in Los Angeles California. New York University ( NYU) is a private, Nonsectarian, Coeducational Research University in New York City. Monash University is a Public university based in Melbourne, Australia. Mount Holyoke College is a liberal arts women's college in South Hadley, Massachusetts. Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. Hendrix College is a private Liberal arts college located in Conway, Arkansas. Lake Forest College, founded in 1857 is a liberal arts college located in Lake Forest Illinois. Washington and Lee University is a private liberal arts college in Lexington Virginia, USA Smith College is a private, independent women's liberal arts college located in Northampton Massachusetts. Colby College, founded in 1813, is an American private liberal arts college located on Mayflower Hill in Waterville Maine. Dartmouth College ( is a private, Coeducational University located in Hanover, New Hampshire, U Bowdoin College, founded in 1794 is a private liberal arts college located in the coastal New England town of Brunswick, Maine. Georgetown University is a Jesuit Private university located in Georgetown Washington D The College of William and Mary (officially The College of William and Mary in Virginia, also known as William & Mary or W&M) is a Public university The University of Sydney (informally Sydney Uni or USyd) is the oldest university in Australia The University of Ulster ( UU; Ollscoil Uladh is a multi-centre University located in Northern Ireland and is the largest single university on the The University of Essex is a British Campus university located near the town of Colchester, England Victoria University of Wellington, also known in Māori as Te Whare Wānanga o te Ūpoko o te Ika a Māui was established in 1897 by Act of The London School of Economics and Political Science, more commonly referred to as The London School of Economics or LSE, is a specialist college of the
Further reading
- American Political Science Review - The Evolution of Political Science. APSR Centennial Volume - Special Issue - November 2006
- Klingemann, Hans-Dieter (ed. ): The State of Political Science in Western Europe. Opladen: Barbara Budrich Publishers 2007, ISBN 978-3-86649-045-3
- Schram, Sanford F. and Brian Caterino (eds.) Making Political Science Matter: Debating Knowledge, Research, and Method. New York and London: New York University Press, 2006.
- Robert E. Goodin, Hans-Dieter Klingemann (Hrsg. ): A New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford / New York u. a. : Oxford University Press 1996, ISBN 0-19-829471-9 (englisch)
- Michael Roskin, Robert L. Cord, James A. Medeiros, and Walter S. Jones, 2007, Political Science: An Introduction (New York: Prentice Hall). ISBN 0-13-24
See also
|
|
External links
- International Association for Political Science Students
- American Political Science Association
- European Consortium for Political Research
- International Political Science Association
- Political Studies Association of the UK
- PROL: Political Science Research Online (prepublished research)
- Truman State University Political Science Research Design Handbook
- A New Nation Votes: American Elections Returns 1787-1825
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic