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A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making process within a specific group. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Campaign finance refers to the means by which money is raised for election campaigns. Grassroots fundraising is a method of Fundraising used by or for political candidates which has grown in popularity with the emergence of the Internet and its In the past Political campaigns were conducted using traditional methods of personal contact such as Television and Radio media purchasing print advertising and " Opposition Research " is episode 121 of The West Wing. Political consulting, beyond the self-evident definition of consulting in political matters refers to a specific Management consulting industry which has grown up around In Politics, campaign advertising is the use of paid media (newspapers radio television etc Canvassing is the systematic initiation of direct contact with a target group of individuals commonly used during Political campaigns A campaign team (and during Elections An election promise is a Promise made to the public by a Politician who is trying to win an Election. " Get out the vote," sometimes " GOTV," is a term used to describe two categories of political activity both aimed at increasing the number of votes cast Lawn signs (also known as yard signs) are used in Election campaigns in some countries Negative campaigning is trying to win an advantage by referring to negative aspects of an opponent or of a policy rather than emphasizing one's own positive attributes or preferred In Political campaigns an attack ad is an Advertisement whose Message is meant as an attack against another candidate or Political party. Fear mongering (or scaremongering) is the use of Fear to leverage the opinions and actions of others towards some end A push poll is a Political campaign technique in which an individual or organization attempts to influence or alter the view of respondents under the guise of conducting a A smear campaign, smear tactic or simply smear is a Metaphor for activity that can harm an individual or group's reputation by conflation with Voter suppression is a form of Electoral fraud and refers to the use of governmental power political campaign strategy and private resources aimed at suppressing (i A candidate is the prospective recipient of an Award or honor or a person seeking or being considered for some kind of position for example to be elected In Representative democracies, Electoral campaigns larger than a few individuals generally include a campaign manager, either Paid or Volunteer The staff of Political campaigns are the people who formulate and implement the Strategy needed to win an election In democracies, political campaigns often refer to electoral campaigns, wherein representatives are chosen or referenda are decided. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita Political campaigns also include organized efforts to alter policy within any institution or organization. Institutions are structures and mechanisms of Social order and Cooperation governing the Behavior of a Set of Individuals
Politics is as old as humankind and is not limited to democratic or governmental institutions. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Some examples of political campaigns are: the effort to execute or banish Socrates from Athens in the 5th century BC, the uprising of petty nobility against John of England in the 13th century, or the 2005 push to remove Michael Eisner from the helm of The Walt Disney Company. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's John (24 December 1167 &ndash 19 October 1216 reigned as a King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death Michael Eisner (born March 7, 1942) was CEO of The Walt Disney Company from September 22, 1984 to September 30
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The campaign message
The message of a modern campaign is an idea or set of ideas set out in a way which is easily communicated. This is often done through the use of soundbites and slogans and may be distinct from the detailed policy proposals or manifesto commitments.
Political messages are carefully crafted before they are disseminated. Campaigns in the western world may spend large sums of money on opinion polls and focus groups in order to figure out what message is needed to reach a majority on Election Day. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings An opinion poll is a survey of Public opinion from a particular sample. A focus group is a form of Qualitative research in which a group of people is asked about their attitude towards a product service concept advertisement idea or packaging
Soundbites
The habit of modern Western media outlets (especially radio and television) of taking short excerpts from speeches has resulted in the creation of the term "soundbite". A sound bite is an audiolinguistic and social communications phenomenon whose nature was recognized in the late 20th century helped by people such as Marshall McLuhan. A sound bite is an audiolinguistic and social communications phenomenon whose nature was recognized in the late 20th century helped by people such as Marshall McLuhan. Examples might include:
- "John Doe is a business man, not a politician. The Name " John Doe " is used as a Placeholder name for a male party in a legal action case or discussion whose true identity is either unknown or His background in finance means he can bring fiscal discipline to state government. "
- "As our society faces a rapid upswing in violent crime and an ever worsening education system, we need leaders who will keep our streets safe and restore accountability to our schools. John Doe is that leader. "
- "Over the past four years, John Doe has missed over fifty City Council meetings. How can you lead if you don't show up? Jane Doe won't turn a blind eye to the government. The Idiom turning a blind eye is used to describe the process of ignoring unpopular orders or inconvenient facts or activities "
Campaign finance
Fundraising techniques include having the candidate call or meet with large donors, sending direct mail pleas to small donors, and courting interest groups who could end up spending millions on the race if it is significant to their interests. Campaign finance refers to the means by which money is raised for election campaigns.
Organization
In a modern political campaign, the campaign organization (or 'machine') will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size. The staff of Political campaigns are the people who formulate and implement the Strategy needed to win an election
Campaign manager
Successful campaigns usually require a campaign manager to coordinate the campaign's operations. In Representative democracies, Electoral campaigns larger than a few individuals generally include a campaign manager, either Paid or Volunteer Apart from a candidate, they are often a campaign's most visible leader. Modern campaign managers may be concerned with executing strategy rather than setting it - particularly if the senior strategists are typically outside political consultants such as primarily pollsters and media consultants. Political consulting, beyond the self-evident definition of consulting in political matters refers to a specific Management consulting industry which has grown up around
Political consultants
Political consultants advise campaigns on virtually all of their activities, from research to field strategy. Political consulting, beyond the self-evident definition of consulting in political matters refers to a specific Management consulting industry which has grown up around Consultants conduct candidate research, voter research, and opposition research for their clients. " Opposition Research " is episode 121 of The West Wing.
Activists
Activists are the 'foot soldiers' loyal to the cause, the true believers who will carry the run by volunteer activists. A political campaigner (or political activist) is someone (generally not a Politician) involved in Political campaigning that is Lobbying Such volunteers and interns may take part in activities such as canvassing door-to-door and making phone calls on behalf of the campaign. Canvassing is the systematic initiation of direct contact with a target group of individuals commonly used during Political campaigns A campaign team (and during Elections
Techniques
A campaign team (which may be as small as one inspired individual, or a heavily-resourced group of professionals) must consider how to communicate the message of the campaign, recruit volunteers, and raise money. Campaign advertising draws on techniques from commercial advertising and propaganda. Advertising is a form of Communication that typically attempts to persuade potential Customers to Purchase or to consume more of a particular Brand Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people The avenues available to political campaigns when distributing their messages is limited by the law, available resources, and the imagination of the campaigns' participants. These techniques are often combined into a formal strategy known as the campaign plan. The plan takes account of a campaign's goal, message, target audience, and resources available. The campaign will typically seek to identify supporters at the same time as getting its message across.
Campaign advertising
Campaign advertising is the use of paid media (newspapers, radio, television, etc. In Politics, campaign advertising is the use of paid media (newspapers radio television etc ) to influence the decisions made for and by groups. These ads are designed by political consultants and the campaign's staff. Political consulting, beyond the self-evident definition of consulting in political matters refers to a specific Management consulting industry which has grown up around The staff of Political campaigns are the people who formulate and implement the Strategy needed to win an election
Canvassing and GOTV
Canvassing is the systematic initiation of direct contact with voters. Canvassing is the systematic initiation of direct contact with a target group of individuals commonly used during Political campaigns A campaign team (and during Elections " Get out the vote," sometimes " GOTV," is a term used to describe two categories of political activity both aimed at increasing the number of votes cast Canvassing is the systematic initiation of direct contact with a target group of individuals commonly used during Political campaigns A campaign team (and during Elections A campaign team will knock on doors of private residences within a particular geographic area, engaging in face-to-face personal interaction with voters. Canvassing may also be performed by telephone, where it is referred to as telephone canvassing. Basic principle A traditional landline telephone system also known as "plain old telephone service" (POTS, commonly handles both signaling and audio information The main purpose of canvassing is to perform voter identification - how individuals are planning to vote - rather than to argue with or persuade voters. " Get out the vote," sometimes " GOTV," is a term used to describe two categories of political activity both aimed at increasing the number of votes cast [1] This preparation is an integral part of a 'get out the vote' operation, in which known supporters are contacted on polling day and reminded to cast their ballot. " Get out the vote," sometimes " GOTV," is a term used to describe two categories of political activity both aimed at increasing the number of votes cast
Media management
The public media (in US parlance 'free media' or 'earned media') may run the story that someone is trying to get elected or to do something about such and such. Earned media (or free media) refers to favorable Publicity gained through promotional efforts other than advertising as opposed to Paid media
Mass meetings, rallies and protests
Holding protests, rallies and other similar public events (if enough people can be persuaded to come) may be a very effective campaign tool. Holding mass meetings with speakers is powerful as it shows visually, through the number of people in attendance, the support that the campaign has.
Modern technology and the internet
The internet is now a core element of modern political campaigns. Internet activism (also known as e-activism, electronic advocacy, cyberactivism, e-campaigning and online organizing) is the use of Communication technologies such as e-mail, web sites, and podcasts for various forms of activism to enable faster communications by citizen movements and deliver a message to a large audience. Electronic mail, often abbreviated to e-mail, email, or originally eMail, is a Store-and-forward method of writing sending receiving A website (alternatively web site or Web site, a back-construction from the Proper noun World Wide Web) is a collection of Web pages A podcast is a series of audio or Video digital-media files which is distributed over the Internet by syndicated Download Activism, in a general sense can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change These Internet technologies are used for cause-related fundraising, lobbying, volunteering, community building, and organizing. The Internet is a global system of interconnected Computer networks Fundraising is the process of soliciting and gathering Money or other gifts in-kind by requesting donations from individuals businesses charitable foundations or governmental Lobbying includes all attempts to influence Legislators and officials whether by other legislators constituents or organized groups A volunteer is someone who works for a community or for the benefit of environment primarily because they choose to do so Community building is a field of practices directed toward the creation or enhancement of Community between Individuals within a regional area (such as a Neighbourhood Organizing (English Organising is the act of rearranging elements following one
Husting
A husting, or the hustings, was originally a physical platform from which representatives presented their views or cast votes before a parliamentary or other election body. A husting, or the hustings, was originally a physical platform from which representatives presented their views or cast votes before a parliamentary or other election body By metonymy, the term may now refer to any event, such as debates or speeches, during an election campaign where one or more of the representative candidates are present.
Other techniques
- Writing directly to members of the public (either via a professional marketing firm or, particularly on a small scale, by volunteers)
- By distributing leaflets or selling newspapers
- Through websites, online communities, and solicited or unsolicited bulk email eg. [1]
- Through a new technique known as Microtargeting that helps identify and target small demographic slices of voters
- Through a whistlestop tour - a series of brief appearances in several small towns
- Hampering the ability of political competitors to campaign, by such techniques as counter-rallies, picketing of rival parties’ meetings, or overwhelming rival candidates’ offices with mischievous phone calls (most political parties in representative democracies publicly distance themselves from such disruptive and morale-affecting tactics, with the exception of those parties self-identifying as activist [2])
- Organizing political house parties
- Using endorsements of other celebrated party members to boost support (see coattail effect). Microtargeting is the use by political parties and Election campaigns of Direct marketing Datamining techniques that involve predictive Market Whistle Stop is a 1946 movie starring George Raft and Ava Gardner. Activism, in a general sense can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change A political house party is a Party held in a private home for the purpose of supporting a particular candidate political party or ballot measure or to share information and The coattail effect is the tendency for a popular political party leader to attract votes for other candidates of the same party in an election
Modern election campaigns in the US
Main article: Elections in the United States
Types of elections
The United States is unusual in that there are dozens of different types of elections and political offices available, from the sewer commission to the President of the United States. Dorothea Lange ( May 25 1895 &ndash October 11 1965) was an influential American documentary Photographer The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Elections happen every year on many different dates in many different areas of the country.
At the local level, some offices (e. g. , school board, town council, etc. ) may be officially non-partisan, with candidates of the same political party challenging each other and in many cases without any campaign references to political parties. Other offices (e. g. , county treasurer, county district attorney, county sheriff) may be filled in partisan manners with parties endorsing like-minded candidates and then working on their behalf.
All state and national elections are partisan (except judicial elections in some states).
Process of campaigning
Major campaigns in the United States are often much longer than those in other democracies.
Campaigns start anywhere from several months to several years before election day. The first part of any campaign for a candidate is deciding to run. Prospective candidates will often speak with family, friends, professional associates, elected officials, community leaders, and the leaders of political parties before deciding to run. A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral Candidates are often recruited by political parties and interest groups interested in electing like-minded politicians. An interest group (also advocacy group, lobby group, pressure group or special interest group) is an organized collection of people who seek During this period, people considering running for office will consider their ability to put together the money, organization, and public image needed to get elected. Many campaigns for major office do not progress past this point as people often do not feel confident in their ability to win. However, some candidates lacking the resources needed for a competitive campaign proceed with an inexpensive paper campaign or informational campaign designed to raise public awareness and support for their positions. A paper campaign is a Political campaign in which the candidate does little else besides filing the necessary papers to get on the ballot
Once a person decides to run, they will make a public announcement. This announcement could consist of anything from a simple press release to concerned media outlets to a major media event followed by a speaking tour. It is often well-known to many people that a candidate will run prior to an announcement being made. Campaigns will often be announced and then only officially "kicked off" months after active campaigning has begun. Being coy about whether a candidacy is planned is often a deliberate strategy by a prospective candidate, either to "test the waters" or to keep the media's attention.
One of the most important aspects of the major American political campaign is the ability to raise large sums of money, especially early on in the race. Political insiders and donors often judge candidates based on their ability to raise money. Not raising enough money early on can lead to problems later as donors are not willing to give funds to candidates they perceive to be losing, a perception based on their poor fundraising performance.
Also during this period, candidates travel around the area they are running in and meet with voters; speaking to them in large crowds, small groups, or even one-on-one. This allows voters to get a better picture of who a candidate is than that which they read about in the paper or see on television. Campaigns sometimes launch expensive media campaigns during this time to introduce the candidate to voters, although most wait until closer to election day.
Campaigns often dispatch volunteers into local communities to meet with voters and persuade people to support the candidate. The volunteers are also responsible for identifying supporters, recruiting them as volunteers or registering them to vote if they are not already registered. The identification of supporters will be useful later as campaigns remind voters to cast their votes.
Late in the campaign, campaigns will launch expensive television, radio, and direct mail campaigns aimed at persuading voters to support the candidate. Campaigns will also intensify their grassroots campaigns, coordinating their volunteers in a full court effort to win votes.
Voting in the United States often starts weeks before election day as mail-in ballots are a commonly used voting method. Campaigns will often run two persuasion programs, one aimed at mail-in voters and one aimed at the more traditional poll voters.
Campaigns for minor office may be relatively simple and inexpensive - talking to local newspapers, giving out campaign signs, and greeting people in the local square.
Political consultants
Political campaigns in the United States are not merely a civic ritual and occasion for political debate, but a multi-billion dollar industry, dominated by professional political consultants using sophisticated campaign management tools, to an extent far greater than elsewhere in the world. Political consulting, beyond the self-evident definition of consulting in political matters refers to a specific Management consulting industry which has grown up around Political consulting, beyond the self-evident definition of consulting in political matters refers to a specific Management consulting industry which has grown up around In the past Political campaigns were conducted using traditional methods of personal contact such as Television and Radio media purchasing print advertising and Though the quadrennial presidential election attracts the most attention, the United States has a huge number of elected offices and there is wide variation between different states, counties, and municipalities on which offices are elected and under what procedures. Elections for President and Vice President of the United States are The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Moreover, unlike democratic politics in much of the rest of the world, the US has relatively weak parties. While parties play a significant role in fundraising and occasionally in drafting people to run, campaigns are ultimately controlled by the individual candidates themselves .
Other issues and criticisms
Cost of campaign advertising
American political campaigns have become heavily reliant on broadcast media and direct mail advertising (typically designed and purchased through specialized consultants). For the band see Broadcast (band Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or Video signals which transmit Direct mail, also known as junk mail, advertising mail or admail, is the delivery of advertising material to recipients of postal Mail. Though virtually all campaign media are sometimes used at all levels (even candidates for local office have been known to purchase cable TV ads), smaller, lower-budget campaigns are typically more focused on direct mail, low-cost advertising (such as lawn signs), and direct voter contact. Lawn signs (also known as yard signs) are used in Election campaigns in some countries This reliance on expensive advertising is a leading factor behind the rise in the cost of running for office in the United States. This rising cost is considered by some to discourage those without well-monied connections, or money themselves, from running for office.
Independent expenditures
Money is raised and spent not only by candidate's campaign, but also by party committees, political action committees, and other groups (in the 2004 election cycle, much controversy has focused on a new category of organization, 527 groups). In the US, a Political Action Committee, or PAC, is the name commonly given to a private group regardless of size organized to elect political candidates A 527 group is a type of American Tax-exempt organization named after a section of the United States tax code,. This is sometimes done through independent expenditures made in support or opposition of specific candidates but without any candidate's cooperation or approval. In Elections in the United States, an independent expenditure is a political activity intended to assist or oppose a specific candidate for office which is The lack of an overt connection between a candidate and third party groups allows one side of a campaign to attack the other side while avoiding criticism for going negative. A memorable example are the Swift Boat Veterans who criticized John Kerry in the United States presidential election, 2004, and who were condemned by Republican Senator John McCain. Swift Vets and POWs for Truth, formerly known as the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth (SBVT was a political group ( 527 group) of American Swift } John Forbes Kerry (born December 11 1943 is an American Politician who is currently serving his fourth term as the junior United States Senator The United States presidential election of 2004 was held on Tuesday November 2, 2004, to elect the President of the United States. [2]
Future developments
Many political players and commentators agree that American political campaigns are currently undergoing a period of change, due to changing campaign-finance laws, increased use of the internet (which has become a valuable fundraising tool), and the apparently declining effectiveness of television advertising. The Internet is a global system of interconnected Computer networks
History
Political campaigns have existed as long as there have been informed citizens to campaign amongst. Often mass campaigns are started by the less privileged or anti-establishment viewpoints (as against more powerful interests whose first resort is lobbying). Lobbying includes all attempts to influence Legislators and officials whether by other legislators constituents or organized groups The phenomenon of political campaigns are tightly tied to special interest groups and political parties. An interest group (also advocacy group, lobby group, pressure group or special interest group) is an organized collection of people who seek A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral The first 'modern' campaign is thought to be William Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in the 1880s, although there may be earlier recognisably modern examples from the 19th century. The Midlothian campaign was a series of Foreign policy speeches given by William Gladstone. Events and Trends Technology Development and commercial production of Electric lighting Development and commercial production of gasoline-powered
Democratic societies have regular election campaigns, but political campaigning can occur on particular issues even in non-democracies so long as freedom of expression is allowed. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system
American election campaigns in the 19th century created the first mass-base political parties and invented many of the techniques of mass campaigning. In the 19th century, the United States invented or developed a number of new methods for conducting American Election Campaigns. In the 1790-1820s, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party battled it out in the so-called "First Party System". The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s The First Party System is a term of Periodization used by some political scientists and historians to describe the political system existing in the United States between
Alternatives to campaigning
Not all democratic elections involve political campaigning. Indeed, some democratic elections specifically rule out campaigning on the grounds that campaigning may compromise the democratic character of the elections (Abizadeh 2005), perhaps because of campaigns' susceptibility to the influence of money, or to the influence of special interest groups.
Sources
World
- Abizadeh, Arash. "Democratic Elections without Campaigns? Normative Foundations of National Baha'i Elections. " World Order 37. 1 (2005): 7-49.
- Barnes, S. H. , and M. Kaase Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies. Sage, 1979.
- Blewett, Neal. The Peers, the Parties and the People: The General Elections of 1910. London: Macmillan, 1972.
- Hix, S. The Political System of the European Union. St. Martin's Press, 1999.
- Katz, Richard S. , and P. Mair (eds. ), How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies. Sage Publications, 1994.
- Katz, Richard S. , and Peter Mair, "Changing Models of Party Organization and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party," Party Politics, Vol. 1, No. 1, 5-28 (1995) DOI: 10. 1177/1354068895001001001 online abstract
- LaPalombara, Joseph and Myron Wiener (eds. ), Political Parties and Political Development. Princeton University Press, 1966.
- Panebianco, A. Political Parties: Organization and Power. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
- Paquette, Laure. Campaign Strategy. New York: Nova, 2006.
- Poguntke, Thomas, and Paul Webb, eds. The Presidentialization of Politics: A Comparative Study of Modern Democracies. Oxford University Press. 2005 online
- Ware, Alan. Citizens, Parties and the State: A Reappraisal. Princeton University Press, 1987.
- Webb, Paul, David Farrell, and Ian Holliday, Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies Oxford University Press, 2002 online
USA
- Robert J. Dinkin. Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practice. Westport: Greenwood, 1989.
- John Gerring, Party Ideologies in America, 1828-1996. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
- Lewis L. Gould, Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans. NY: Random House, 2003.
- Gary C. Jacobson. The Politics of Congressional Elections (5th Edition) NY: Longman, 2000.
- Richard Jensen, The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.
- L. Sandy Meisel, Political Parties and Elections in the United States: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, 1991.
- Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. , ed. History of American Presidential Elections. 4 vols. New York: Chelsea House, 1971.
- James A. Thurber, Campaigns and Elections American Style. NY Westview Press; 2nd edition, 2004.
- Kirsten A. Foot and Steven M. Schneider, Web Campaigning. The MIT Press, 2006.
References
- ^ How to Win an Election, Paul Richards, Second Edition, p. 87
- ^ Jim Rassmann (August 10, 2004). Shame on the Swift Boat Veterans for Bush. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori
See also
- Techniques and traditions
- Canvassing
- Election promise
- Husting
- Lawn sign
- Microtargeting
- Political campaign staff
- Votebank
- Election litter
- General topics
- Examples
External links
- Wikia has a wiki on this subject: campaigns
- United States Federal Election Commission
- Campaign - Non Partisan Voter Education Site
- The American Association of Political Consultants
- CampaignGuide
- PoliticsOnline
- IRS: Taxes for Political Organizations
- An in-depth look at the campaign of Lewis Lehrman for NY Governor in 1982
- The National Institute on Money in State Politics
- Center for American Women and Politics Ready to Run Campaign Training for Women
- Australian Electoral Commission
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