Poetry (from the Greek "ποίησις", poiesis, a "making" or "creating") is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called This article is about meaning as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics Poetry may be written independently, as discrete poems, or may occur in conjunction with other arts, as in poetic drama, hymns or lyrics. Verse drama is any Drama written as verse to be spoken another possible general term is poetic drama. A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities Lyrics (in singular form Lyric) are a set of words that accompany music either by speaking or singing

Poetry, and discussions of it, have a long history. Poetry as an art form that may have predated Literacy. Some of the earliest Poetry is believed to have been orally recited or sung Early attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle 's Poetics ( Greek: Ποιητικός, c 335 BCE aims to give an account of what he calls 'poetry' (for him the term includes the Speech refers to the processes associated with the production and perception of Sounds used in Spoken language. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Drama is the specific mode of Fiction represented in Performance. A song is a Musical composition. Songs contain vocal parts that are performed 'sung' and generally feature Words ( Lyrics) commonly followed Comedy (from the Greek κωμωδίαkomodia has a popular meaning (any discourse generally intended to amuse especially in Television, Film, and ^[1] Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition and rhyme, and emphasised the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from prose. This article is about the poetic technique For the form of ice see Rime ice. For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. ^[2] From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more loosely defined as a fundamental creative act using language. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them ^[3]

Poetry often uses particular forms and conventions to expand the literal meaning of the words, or to evoke emotional or sensual responses. Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. Assonance is repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within Phrases or Sentences, and together with Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of the first Consonant sound in a phrase Onomatopoeia (also spelled onomatopœia, from Greek: ονοματοποιΐα is a Word or a grouping of words that imitates the sound it is describing Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement symmetry" is the variation of the length and accentuation of Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. An incantation or incantations are the words spoken during a Ritual, either a Hymn or Prayer invoking or praising a Deity, or in magic Poetry's use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Ambiguity (Am-big-u-i-ty is the property of being ambiguous, where a Word, term notation sign Symbol, Phrase, sentence, or any "Symbolic" redirects here For other uses see Symbolism (disambiguation and Symbolic (disambiguation. Irony is a literary or Rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or Discordance between what one says or does and what one means or Stylistics is the study of varieties of Language whose properties position that language in context. Poetic diction is the term used to refer to the linguistic style, the Vocabulary, and the Metaphors used in the writing of Poetry. Similarly, metaphor and simile create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects SIMILE is a research project focused on developing tools to increase the interoperability of disparate digital collections This article is about meaning as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. A verse is generally considered to be a single line in a metrical composition e

Some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set While readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi may think of it as being written in rhyming lines and regular meter, there are traditions, such as those of Du Fu and Beowulf, that use other approaches to achieve rhythm and euphony. ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Adam Bernard Mickiewicz (pronounced ] in Belarusian, Адам Міцкевіч; in Lithuanian, Adomas Bernardas Mickevičius; December This article is about the poetic technique For the form of ice see Rime ice. In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. Du Fu ( 712–770 was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. Beowulf is an Old English Heroic epic poem of anonymous authorship dating as recorded in the Nowell Codex manuscript from between In today's globalized world, poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. Globalization (or globalisation) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional phenomena into global ones

Contents 1 History 1.1 Western traditions 1.2 Twentieth-century disputes 2 Basic elements 2.1 Prosody 2.1.1 Rhythm 2.1.2 Meter 2.1.3 Metrical patterns 2.2 Rhyme, alliteration, assonance 2.2.1 Rhyming schemes 2.3 Poetic form 2.3.1 Lines and stanzas 2.3.2 Visual presentation 2.4 Poetic diction 3 Poetic forms 3.1 Sonnets 3.2 Jintishi 3.3 Sestina 3.4 Villanelle 3.5 Pantoum 3.6 Tanka 3.7 Haiku 3.8 Ruba'i 3.9 Sijo 3.10 Ode 3.11 Ghazal 3.12 Other forms 4 Poetic genres 4.1 Narrative poetry 4.2 Epic poetry 4.3 Dramatic poetry 4.4 Satirical poetry 4.5 Lyric poetry 4.6 Verse fable 4.7 Prose poetry 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Anthologies 7.2 Scansion and Form 7.3 Critical and historical works 7.4 Linguistics and language 7.5 Other Works

History

Main articles: History of poetry and Literary theory

Poetry as an art form may predate literacy. traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write or the ability to use Language to read, write, listen, ^[4] Many ancient works, from the Vedas (1700–1200 BC) to the Odyssey (800–675 BC), appear to have been composed in poetic form to aid memorization and oral transmission, in prehistoric and ancient societies. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. Ancient Greece Poets (by date of birth Homer, born near or before the beginning of the century Hesiod, born near ^[5] Poetry appears among the earliest records of most literate cultures, with poetic fragments found on early monoliths, runestones and stelae. A monolith is a geological feature such as a Mountain, consisting of a single massive stone or rock or a single piece of rock placed as or within a monument A runestone is typically a raised stone with a runic inscription but the term can also be applied to inscriptions on boulders and on bedrock A stele (from Greek:, stēlē, ˈstiːli plural stelae,, stēlai, ˈstiːlaɪ also found Latinised singular stela

The oldest surviving poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh, from the 3rd millennium BC in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, now Iraq), which was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, papyrus. The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Papyrus (/pəˈpaɪrəs/ (Rhymes -aɪrəs)is a thick paper-like material produced from the Pith of the papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus ^[6] Other ancient epic poetry includes the Greek epics, Iliad and Odyssey, and the Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki

The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics" — the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Poetics refers generally to the theory of literary Discourse and specifically to the theory of Poetry, although some speakers use the term so broadly as to denote Some ancient societies, such as the Chinese through the Shi Jing, one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance. Shi Jing ( translated variously as the Classic of Poetry, the Book of Songs or the Book of Odes, is the earliest The Five Classics ( is a corpus of five ancient Chinese books used by Confucianism as the basis of studies Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differences in context spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry, and rap. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in Prose, the rest in verse) was the most famous poet of the Edo period in Japan During his lifetime Bashō was recognized for his works in the collaborative haikai no renga form today meaning "Narrow road to/of the interior" translated alternately as The Narrow Road to the Deep North and The Narrow Road to the Interior See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is This article is concerned with Biblical poetry, specifically Poetry in the Hebrew Bible. NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS*************** Rapping (also known as emceeing, MCing, spitting, or just rhyming) is the Rhythmic spoken delivery of Rhymes wordplay and ^[7]

Context can be critical to poetics and to the development of poetic genres and forms. A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set Poetry that records historic events in epics, such as Gilgamesh or Ferdowsi's Shahnameh,^[8] will necessarily be lengthy and narrative, while poetry used for liturgical purposes (hymns, psalms, suras and hadiths) is likely to have an inspirational tone, whereas elegy and tragedy are meant to evoke deep emotional responses. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc Narrative poetry is Poetry that tells a story The poems may be short or long and the story it relates to may be simple or complex A liturgy is the customary public worship done by a specific religious group according to their particular traditions A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities Psalms ( Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים, or "praises" is a book of the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) included Sura (sometimes spelt "Surah" ar سورة, plural "Suwar" ar سور is an Arabic term literally meaning "something enclosed or surrounded Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic The term " elegy " was originally used for a type of poetic meter ( Elegiac metre but is also used for a Poem of mourning from the Greek Other contexts include Gregorian chants, formal or diplomatic speech,^[9] political rhetoric and invective,^[10] light-hearted nursery and nonsense rhymes, and even medical texts. History Gregorian chant was organized codified and notated mainly in the Frankish lands of western and central Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries with later additions Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Libel is a verse genre primarily of the Renaissance, descended from the tradition of invective in classical Greek and Roman poetry A nursery rhyme is a traditional Song or Poem taught to young children originally in the nursery. Nonsense verse is the poetic form of Literary nonsense, normally composed for humorous effect which is intentionally and overtly paradoxical silly witty whimsical or otherwise Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the ^[11]

The Polish historian of aesthetics, Władysław Tatarkiewicz, in a paper on "The Concept of Poetry," traces the evolution of what is in fact two concepts of poetry. Władysław Tatarkiewicz tatarˈkʲevitʂ}} Warsaw, April 3, 1886 &ndash April 4, 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 ( l conceptum - something conceived but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory of Aristotle Tatarkiewicz points out that the term is applied to two distinct things that, as the poet Paul Valéry observes, "at a certain point find union. Ambroise-Paul-Toussaint-Jules Valéry (French pɔl valeˈʁi October 30, 1871 – July 20, 1945) was a French Poet Poetry [. . . ] is an art based on language. But poetry also has a more general meaning [. . . ] that is difficult to define because it is less determinate: poetry expresses a certain state of mind. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. " . "^[12]

Western traditions

Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Notably, the existing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics describe three genres of poetry — the epic, the comic, and the tragic — and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes of the genre. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle 's Poetics ( Greek: Ποιητικός, c 335 BCE aims to give an account of what he calls 'poetry' (for him the term includes the Poetics refers generally to the theory of literary Discourse and specifically to the theory of Poetry, although some speakers use the term so broadly as to denote ^[13] Later aestheticians identified three major genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music Verse drama is any Drama written as verse to be spoken another possible general term is poetic drama. Comedy (from the Greek κωμωδίαkomodia has a popular meaning (any discourse generally intended to amuse especially in Television, Film, and A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set

Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age,^[14] as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[15] Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to, prose, which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure. For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. ^[16]

This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought process. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic, "Negative Capability. Romanticism largely began as a reaction against the prevailing Enlightenment ideals of the day Negative capability is a Theory of the poet John Keats, expressed in his letter to George and Thomas Keats dated Sunday 22 December "^[17] This "romantic" approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained influential into the twentieth century.

During this period, there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European colonialism and the attendant rise in global trade. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism In addition to a boom in translation, during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered. Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text likewise called a " translation

Twentieth-century disputes

Some 20th century literary theorists, relying less on the opposition of prose and poetry, focused on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and poetry as what the poet creates. Archibald MacLeish ( May 7, 1892 – April 20, 1982) was an American Poet, Writer and the Librarian Literary theory in a strict sense is the systematic study of the nature of Literature and of the methods for analyzing literature The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon, and some modernist poets essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media such as carpentry. Modernist poetry refers to poetry written between 1890 and 1930 in the tradition of Modernist literature; the dates of the term depend upon a number of factors including the ^[18] Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided, as when Archibald MacLeish concludes his paradoxical poem, "Ars Poetica," with the lines: "A poem should not mean / but be. Archibald MacLeish ( May 7, 1892 – April 20, 1982) was an American Poet, Writer and the Librarian Ars Poetica is a term meaning "The Art of Poetry" or "On the Nature of Poetry" "^[19]

Disputes over the definition of poetry, and over poetry's distinction from other genres of literature, have been inextricably intertwined with the debate over the role of poetic form. The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the twentieth century coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic prose and prosaic "poetry". This article refers to a poetic form For the competitive speech event see Prose & Poetry. Numerous modernist poets have written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by non-metrical means. ^[20] While there was a substantial formalist reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures. New Formalism is a late-twentieth and early twenty-first century movement in American poetry that has promoted a return to metrical and Rhymed verse ^[21]

More recently, postmodernism has fully embraced MacLeish's concept and come to regard the boundaries between prose and poetry, and also among genres of poetry, as having meaning only as cultural artifacts. Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism Postmodernism goes beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the reader of a text, and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read. ^[22] Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at definition and classification that were once sensible within a tradition such as the Western canon. The Western canon is a term used to denote a canon of books and more widely music and art, that has been the most influential in

Basic elements

Prosody

Main article: Meter (poetry)

Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement symmetry" is the variation of the length and accentuation of In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words Rhythm and meter, although closely related, should be distinguished. ^[23] Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Thus, the meter of a line may be described as being "iambic", but a full description of the rhythm would require noting where the language causes one to pause or accelerate and how the meter interacts with other elements of the language. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter. A system of scansion is a way to mark the metrical patterns of a line of Poetry.

Rhythm

Main articles: Timing (linguistics), tone (linguistics), and pitch accent

See also Parallelism, inflection, intonation, foot

The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Language timing is the rhythmic quality of a particular type of speech in particular how Syllables are distributed across time Tone is the use of pitch in Language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is to distinguish or inflect words Pitch accent is a linguistic term of convenience for a variety of restricted tone systems that use variations in pitch to give prominence to a Syllable Parallelism means to give two or more parts of the sentences a similar form so as to give the whole a definite pattern In Grammar, inflection or inflexion is the way language handles grammatical relations and relational categories such as tense, mood, voice In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words In verse, many meters use a foot as the basic unit in their description of the underlying rhythm of a poem Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches. Language timing is the rhythmic quality of a particular type of speech in particular how Syllables are distributed across time Language timing is the rhythmic quality of a particular type of speech in particular how Syllables are distributed across time Language timing is the rhythmic quality of a particular type of speech in particular how Syllables are distributed across time Language timing is the rhythmic quality of a particular type of speech in particular how Syllables are distributed across time ^[24] Japanese is a mora-timed language. is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities Syllable-timed languages include Latin, Catalan, French and Spanish. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Catalan ˈkætəˌlæn ( català kətəˈla or) is a Romance language, the national and official language of Andorra, and a co-official French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-timed languages. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived. In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words Languages also can rely on either pitch, such as in Vedic or ancient Greek, or tone. Pitch accent is a linguistic term of convenience for a variety of restricted tone systems that use variations in pitch to give prominence to a Syllable Tone is the use of pitch in Language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is to distinguish or inflect words Tonal languages include Chinese, Vietnamese, Lithuanian, and most subsaharan languages. A tonal language is a language that uses tone to distinguish words The Niger-Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa 's largest in terms of geographical area number of speakers and number ^[25]

Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In verse, many meters use a foot as the basic unit in their description of the underlying rhythm of a poem In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided). Elision is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a Vowel, a Consonant, or a whole Syllable) in a word or phrase producing a result that is easier In the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, vowel length rather than stresses define the meter. A classical language, is a language with a Literature that is "classical"&mdashie "it should be ancient it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line. ^[26]

The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, including many of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. John Robinson Jeffers ( January 10 1887 &ndash January 20 1962) was an American Poet, known for his work about the central This article is concerned with Biblical poetry, specifically Poetry in the Hebrew Bible. Psalms ( Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים, or "praises" is a book of the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) included Parallelism means to give two or more parts of the sentences a similar form so as to give the whole a definite pattern Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call-and-response performance, which could also be reinforced by intonation. This article is about the musical term See Antiphon (person the orator of ancient Greece In Music, a call and response is a succession of two distinct phrases usually played by different Musicians where the second phrase is heard as a direct In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences. Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar) which ensured a rhythm. Venpa ( in Tamil) is a form of classical Tamil Poetry. Classical Tamil poetry has been classified based upon the rules of metric prosody Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. In Formal language theory, a context-free grammar ( CFG) is a grammar in which every production rule is of the form V &rarr ^[27] In Chinese poetry, tones as well as stresses create rhythm. Chinese Poetry is the most highly regarded literary genre in China. Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone, falling tone, and entering tone. Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem" In Chinese and Vietnamese, tone names are the names given to the tones these languages use Entering tone ( is one of four syllable types in the Phonology in Middle Chinese which are commonly translated as "tone" Note that other classifications may have as many as eight tones for Chinese and six for Vietnamese.

The formal patterns of meter used developed in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of free verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence than a regular meter. Free verse is a term describing various styles of Poetry that are written without using strict meter or Rhyme, but that still are recognizable as poetry Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry. John Robinson Jeffers ( January 10 1887 &ndash January 20 1962) was an American Poet, known for his work about the central Marianne Moore ( November 15, 1887 – February 5, 1972) was a Modernist American Poet and Writer William Carlos Williams ( 17 September 1883 &ndash 4 March 1963) was an American poet closely associated with modernism ^[28] Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm. Sprung rhythm is a poetic rhythm designed to imitate the rhythm of natural speech ^[29]

Meter

Main articles: Scansion and Systems of scansion

In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line. A system of scansion is a way to mark the metrical patterns of a line of Poetry. A system of scansion is a way to mark the metrical patterns of a line of Poetry. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. In verse, many meters use a foot as the basic unit in their description of the underlying rhythm of a poem Thus, "iambic pentameter" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "iamb. Iambic pentameter is a type of meter that is used in Poetry and Drama. An iamb or iambus is a Metrical foot used in various types of Poetry. " This metric system originated in ancient Greek poetry, and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great tragedians of Athens. Greek literature refers to those writings autochthonic to the areas of Greek influence typically though not necessarily in one of the Greek dialects throughout the Pindar (ˈpɪndɚ (or Pindarus, Greek:) (probably born 522 BC in Cynoscephalae a village in Boeotia; died 443 BC in Argos) was an Ancient Sappho (ˈsæfoʊ in English Attic Greek el Σαπφώ sapːʰɔː Aeolic Greek el Ψάπφω) was an Ancient Greek lyric The theatre of ancient Greece, or ancient Greek drama, is a theatrical Culture that flourished in ancient Greece between c Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Similarly, "dactylic hexameter," comprises six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl. Dactylic Hexameter (also known as "heroic hexameter" is a form of meter in poetry or a rhythmic scheme " Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE

Meter is often scanned based on the arrangement of "poetic feet" into lines. In verse, many meters use a foot as the basic unit in their description of the underlying rhythm of a poem ^[30] In English, each foot usually includes one syllable with a stress and one or two without a stress. In other languages, it may be a combination of the number of syllables and the length of the vowel that determines how the foot is parsed, where one syllable with a long vowel may be treated as the equivalent of two syllables with short vowels. For example, in ancient Greek poetry, meter is based solely on syllable duration rather than stress. In some languages, such as English, stressed syllables are typically pronounced with greater volume, greater length, and higher pitch, and are the basis for poetic meter. In ancient Greek, these attributes were independent of each other; long vowels and syllables including a vowel plus more than one consonant actually had longer duration, approximately double that of a short vowel, while pitch and stress (dictated by the accent) were not associated with duration and played no role in the meter. Thus, a dactylic hexameter line could be envisioned as a musical phrase with six measures, each of which contained either a half note followed by two quarter notes (i. e. a long syllable followed by two short syllables), or two half notes (i. e. two long syllables); thus, the substitution of two short syllables for one long syllable resulted in a measure of the same length. Such substitution in a stress language, such as English, would not result in the same rhythmic regularity. In Anglo-Saxon meter, the unit on which lines are built is a half-line containing two stresses rather than a foot. Eduard Sievers developed a theory of the meter of Anglo-Saxon Alliterative verse. ^[31] Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and lengths of syllables. In Linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain Syllables in a word Pitch accent is a linguistic term of convenience for a variety of restricted tone systems that use variations in pitch to give prominence to a Syllable In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound ^[32]

As an example of how a line of meter is defined, in English-language iambic pentameter, each line has five metrical feet, and each foot is an iamb, or an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter is a type of meter that is used in Poetry and Drama. When a particular line is scanned, there may be variations upon the basic pattern of the meter; for example, the first foot of English iambic pentameters is quite often inverted, meaning that the stress falls on the first syllable. In Prosody the Inversion of a foot is the reversal of the order of its elements ^[33] The generally accepted names for some of the most commonly used kinds of feet include:

• spondee — two stressed syllables together
• iamb — unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable
• trochee — one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable
• dactyl — one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables
• anapest — two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable
• pyrrhic - two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter)

The number of metrical feet in a line are described in Greek terminology as follows:

• dimeter — two feet
• trimeter — three feet
• tetrameter — four feet
• pentameter — five feet
• hexameter — six feet
• heptameter — seven feet
• octameter — eight feet

There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a choriamb of four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. In Poetry, a spondee is a Metrical foot consisting of two long syllables as determined by Syllable weight in classical meters or two stressed syllables An iamb or iambus is a Metrical foot used in various types of Poetry. A trochee or choree, choreus, is a Metrical foot used in formal Poetry. A dactyl (Gr δάκτυλος dáktulos, “finger” is a type of meter in poetry. An anapaest or anapest, also called antidactylus, is a Metrical foot used in formal Poetry. A pyrrhic is a Metrical foot used in formal Poetry. It consists of two unaccented short syllables It is also known as a dibrach. In Poetry, a dimeter is a metrical line of verse with two feet. In Poetry, a trimeter is a metre of three metrical feet per line&mdashexample When here // the spring // we see Fresh green // upon In Poetry, a tetrameter is a line of four metrical feet. The particular foot of course can vary as follows Anapestic tetrameter: In Poetry, a pentameter is a line of verse consisting of five metrical feet. Hexameter is a literary and poetic form consisting of six metrical feet per line as in the Iliad. Heptameter is one or more lines of verse containing seven Metrical feet (usually fourteen or twenty-one Syllables. Octameter in Poetry is a line of eight metrical feet. It is not very common in English verse In Greek and Latin poetry choriamb refers to a prosodic foot of four Syllables of the pattern long-short-short-long The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry. Greek literature refers to those writings autochthonic to the areas of Greek influence typically though not necessarily in one of the Greek dialects throughout the Latin poetry was a major part of Latin literature during the height of the Latin language. Languages which utilize vowel length or intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds. In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables

Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse. ^[34] The dactyl, on the other hand, almost gallops along. And, as readers of The Night Before Christmas or Dr. Seuss realize, the anapest is perfect for a light-hearted, comic feel. Theodor Seuss Geisel (ˈsɔɪs ˈɡaɪzəl March 2 1904 – September 24 1991 was an American Writer and Cartoonist, better known by his pen name ^[35]

There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in describing meter. For example, Robert Pinsky has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the language. Robert Pinsky (born October 20 1940) is an American Poet, Essayist, literary critic, and Translator. ^[36] Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. Vladimir Nabokov noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words, and suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress. This page is about the novelist For his father the politician see Vladimir Dmitrievich Nabokov. ^[37]

Metrical patterns

Main article: Meter (poetry)

Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging from the Shakespearian iambic pentameter and the Homerian dactylic hexameter to the Anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes. In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. Iambic pentameter is a type of meter that is used in Poetry and Drama. Dactylic Hexameter (also known as "heroic hexameter" is a form of meter in poetry or a rhythmic scheme Anapestic tetrameter is a poetic meter that has four anapestic metrical feet per line However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and create a hard stop. In meter, caesura (alternative spellings are cæsura or cesura) is a term to denote an audible pause that breaks up a line of verse In Poetry, a spondee is a Metrical foot consisting of two long syllables as determined by Syllable weight in classical meters or two stressed syllables Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular. Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for example, iambic tetrameter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur or occurs to a much lesser extent in English. Iambic tetrameter is a meter in Poetry. It refers to a line consisting of four iambic feet. ^[38]

Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include:

• Iambic pentameter (John Milton, Paradise Lost^[39])
• Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad;^[40] Ovid, The Metamorphoses)
• Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"; Aleksandr Pushkin, Eugene Onegin)^[41]
• Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven")^[42]
• Anapestic tetrameter (Lewis Carroll, "The Hunting of the Snark";^[43] Lord Byron, Don Juan)^[44]
• Alexandrine, also known as iambic hexameter (Jean Racine, Phèdre)^[45]

Rhyme, alliteration, assonance

Main articles: Rhyme, Alliterative verse, and Assonance

Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. This article is about the poetic technique For the form of ice see Rime ice. Alliteration is the repetition of the first Consonant sound in a phrase Assonance is repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within Phrases or Sentences, and together with Alliteration They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element. ^[46]

Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines ("internal rhyme"). In Poetry, internal rhyme or middle rhyme is Rhyme which occurs in a single line of verse. ^[47] Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme. ^[48] The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language.

Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas. ^[49] Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures. Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic. The skald was a member of a group of Poets whose courtly poetry (Icelandic dróttkvæði) is associated with the courts of Scandinavian and Icelandic Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry. Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element.

Rhyming schemes

Main article: Rhyme scheme

In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poet forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyming Lines in a Poem or Song. A ballad is a Poem usually set to Music; thus it often is a story told in a Song. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. A couplet is a pair of lines of verse. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyming Lines in a Poem or Song. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain). The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th 12th and 13th centuries (AD 1000&ndash1299 Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[50] Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas. Arabic world Pre-Islamic poetry at its height as the Arabic language emerges as a literary language Qasida (also spelled qasidah) in Arabic: قصيدة, plural qasā'id, قــصــائـد; in Persian: قصیده Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes. The chant royal is a poetic form that consists of five eleven-line Stanzas with a Rhyme scheme a-b-a-b-c-c-d-d-e-d-E and a five-line Envoi rhyming

Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form. ^[51] Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet. Enclosed rhyme (or enclosing rhyme) is the Rhyme scheme "abba" (that is where the first and fourth lines and the second and third lines rhyme The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. ^[52] Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima. For etymology and similar terms see Octave. Ottava rima is a rhyming Stanza form of Italian origin Terza rima is a rhyming verse Stanza form that consists of an interlocking three line rhyme scheme The types and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the main article. A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyming Lines in a Poem or Song.

Ottava rima

The ottava rima is a poem with a stanza of eight lines with an alternating a-b rhyming scheme for the first six lines followed by a closing couplet first used by Boccaccio. For etymology and similar terms see Octave. Ottava rima is a rhyming Stanza form of Italian origin This rhyming scheme was developed for heroic epics but has also been used for mock-heroic poetry.

Dante and terza rima

Dante's Divine Comedy^[53] is written in terza rima, where each stanza has three lines, with the first and third rhyming, and the second line rhyming with the first and third lines of the next stanza (thus, a-b-a / b-c-b / c-d-c, et cetera. The Divine Comedy Terza rima is a rhyming verse Stanza form that consists of an interlocking three line rhyme scheme ) in a chain rhyme. Chain rhyme is the linking together of Stanzas by carrying a Rhyme over from one stanza to the next The terza rima provides a flowing, progressive sense to the poem, and used skillfully it can evoke a sense of motion, both forward and backward. Terza rima is appropriately used in lengthy poems in languages with rich rhyming schemes (such as Italian, with its many common word endings). ^[54]

Poetic form

Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry, and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognisable structures or forms, and write in 'free verse'. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form and some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse, however much it may appear to have been ignored. Similarly, in the best poetry written in the classical style there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect. Among the major structural elements often used in poetry are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. In Poetry, a stanza is a unit within a larger Poem. In modern poetry the term is often equivalent with Strophe; in popular vocal music a stanza is Verse paragraphs are Stanzas with no regular number of Lines or groups of lines that make up units of sense The Cantos by Ezra Pound is a long incomplete Poem in 120 sections each of which is a Canto. The broader visual presentation of words and calligraphy can also be utilized. Calligraphy (from Greek kallos "beauty" + graphẽ "writing" is the art of writing (Mediavilla 1996 17 These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes (see following section), such as in the sonnet or haiku. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. is a form of Japanese poetry. Previously called

Lines and stanzas

Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone. See the article on line breaks for information about the division between lines.

Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included. In Poetry, a stanza is a unit within a larger Poem. In modern poetry the term is often equivalent with Strophe; in popular vocal music a stanza is Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, five lines a quintain (or cinquain), six lines a sestet, and eight lines an octet. A couplet is a pair of lines of verse. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter A couplet is a pair of lines of verse. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter A tercet is three lines of Poetry, forming a Stanza or complete poem A tercet is three lines of Poetry, forming a Stanza or complete poem A quatrain is a Poem, or a Stanza within a poem that consists always of four lines Cinquain refers in general to any Stanza or short poem of five lines Cinquain refers in general to any Stanza or short poem of five lines A sestet is the name given to the second division of a Sonnet, which must consist of an octave, of eight lines succeeded by a sestet of six lines These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone. Stanzas often have related couplets or triplets within them.

Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form. Verse paragraphs are Stanzas with no regular number of Lines or groups of lines that make up units of sense Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used.

In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. In Poetry, the ghazal ( Arabic / Persian / Urdu: غزل; Hindi: ग़ज़ल Turkish gazel) is a A villanelle is a poetic form which entered English-language poetry in the 1800s from the imitation of French models Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas. Strophe ( Greek στροφή, turn bend twist, see also Phrase) is a concept in versification which properly Antistrophe ( Greek αντιστροφή, turn back) is the portion of an Ode sung by the chorus in its returning movement from west to east Epode, in verse, is the third part of an Ode, which followed the Strophe and the Antistrophe, and completed the movement In such cases, or where structures are meant to be highly formal, a stanza will usually form a complete thought, consisting of full sentences and cohesive thoughts.

In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. The skald was a member of a group of Poets whose courtly poetry (Icelandic dróttkvæði) is associated with the courts of Scandinavian and Icelandic In prosody, alliterative verse is a form of verse that uses Alliteration as the principal structuring device to unify lines of poetry as opposed to In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts.

Visual presentation

Main article: Visual poetry

Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth. Visual poetry, is Poetry or Art in which the visual arrangement of text images and symbols is important in conveying the intended effect of the work Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem. An acrostic (from the late Greek akróstichon, from ákros, "top" and stíchos, "verse" is a Poem or other Writing In Arabic, Hebrew and Chinese poetry, the visual presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. Chinese Poetry is the most highly regarded literary genre in China. Calligraphy (from Greek kallos "beauty" + graphẽ "writing" is the art of writing (Mediavilla 1996 17

With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some Modernist poetry takes this to an extreme, with the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page forming an integral part of the poem's composition, whether to complement the poem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths, or to create juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement symmetry" is the variation of the length and accentuation of In meter, caesura (alternative spellings are cæsura or cesura) is a term to denote an audible pause that breaks up a line of verse This article is about meaning as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics Ambiguity (Am-big-u-i-ty is the property of being ambiguous, where a Word, term notation sign Symbol, Phrase, sentence, or any Irony is a literary or Rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or Discordance between what one says or does and what one means or ^[55] In its most extreme form, this can lead to concrete poetry or asemic writing. Concrete poetry, pattern poetry or shape poetry is Poetry in which the typographical arrangement of words is as important in conveying the intended effect Asemic writing is a wordless open Semantic form of Writing. The word asemic means "having no specific semantic content" ^[56]

Poetic diction

Main article: Poetic diction

Poetic diction treats of the manner in which language is used, and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form. Poetic diction is the term used to refer to the linguistic style, the Vocabulary, and the Metaphors used in the writing of Poetry. Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of

Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. In Rhetoric, a rhetorical device or resource of language is a technique that an author or speaker uses to evoke an Emotional response in the audience (the SIMILE is a research project focused on developing tools to increase the interoperability of disparate digital collections Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects Irony is a literary or Rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or Discordance between what one says or does and what one means or ^[57] Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle 's Poetics ( Greek: Ποιητικός, c 335 BCE aims to give an account of what he calls 'poetry' (for him the term includes the "^[58] Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that deemphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis. Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early-1920s and is best known for the visual artworks and writings of the group members Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Catachresis (from Greek) which literally means the incorrect or improper use of a word is a term used to denote the (usually intentional use of any Figure

Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the west during classical times, the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. An allegory (from αλλος allos "other" and el αγορευειν agoreuein "to speak in public" is a figurative mode of representation Allegory in the Middle Ages was a vital element in the Synthesis of Biblical and Classical traditions into what would become recognizable as Medieval culture The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[59] Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory. The musical instrument is spelled Cymbal. A symbol is something --- such as an object, Picture, written word a sound a piece An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference or representation of or to a well-known person place event literary work myth, or work of art An allegory (from αλλος allos "other" and el αγορευειν agoreuein "to speak in public" is a figurative mode of representation

Another strong element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. Poetic diction is the term used to refer to the linguistic style, the Vocabulary, and the Metaphors used in the writing of Poetry. Vagina Imagery is used in literature to refer to descriptive language that evokes sensory experience The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku. Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early-1920s and is best known for the visual artworks and writings of the group members is a form of Japanese poetry. Previously called Vivid images are often, as well, endowed with symbolism. "Symbolic" redirects here For other uses see Symbolism (disambiguation and Symbolic (disambiguation.

Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer refrain. A refrain (from Vulgar Latin refringere, "to repeat" and later from Old French refraindre) is the Line or lines that are Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, as in many odes, or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes. Ode (from the Ancient Greek) is a form of stately and elaborate lyrical verse. Irony is a literary or Rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or Discordance between what one says or does and what one means or For example, in Antony's famous eulogy of Caesar in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Antony's repetition of the words, "For Brutus is an honorable man," moves from a sincere tone to one that exudes irony. A eulogy is a speech or writing in Praise of a person or thing William Shakespeare ( baptised Julius Caesar is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1599 ^[60]

Poetic forms

Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more developed, closed or "received" poetic forms, the rhyming scheme, meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an elegy to the highly formalized structure of the ghazal or villanelle. The term " elegy " was originally used for a type of poetic meter ( Elegiac metre but is also used for a Poem of mourning from the Greek In Poetry, the ghazal ( Arabic / Persian / Urdu: غزل; Hindi: ग़ज़ल Turkish gazel) is a A villanelle is a poetic form which entered English-language poetry in the 1800s from the imitation of French models Described below are some common forms of poetry widely used across a number of languages. Additional forms of poetry may be found in the discussions of poetry of particular cultures or periods and in the glossary.

Sonnets

Main article: Sonnet

Among the most common form of poetry through the ages is the sonnet, which, by the thirteenth century, was a poem of fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. William Shakespeare ( baptised The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. The conventions associated with the sonnet have changed during its history, and so there are several different sonnet forms. Traditionally, English poets use iambic pentameter when writing sonnets, with the Spenserian and Shakespearean sonnets being especially notable. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. In the Romance languages, the hendecasyllable and Alexandrines are the most widely used meters, although the Petrarchan sonnet has been used in Italy since the 14th century. The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all Hendecasyllable verse (in Italian endecasillabo) is a kind of verse used mostly in Italian Poetry, defined by its having the last An alexandrine is a line of poetic meter comprising 12 Syllables Alexandrines are common in the German literature of the Baroque period and The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and often use a poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery, but the twists and turns associated with the move from octave to sestet and to final couplet make them a useful and dynamic form for many subjects. Shakespeare's sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry, with 20 being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse. Shakespeare's sonnets, or simply The Sonnets, is a collection of Poems in Sonnet form written by William Shakespeare that deal with The Oxford Book of English Verse most commonly means the Oxford Book of English Verse 1250-1900 edited by Arthur Quiller-Couch, an Anthology of English ^[61]

Jintishi

Main articles: Shi (poetry)#Jintishi and Jintishi

The jintishi (近體詩) is a Chinese poetic form based on a series of set tonal patterns using the four tones of the classical Chinese language in each couplet: the level, rising, falling and entering tones. Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem" Du Fu ( 712–770 was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem" The basic form of the jintishi has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem" The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of allusion, and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics. An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference or representation of or to a well-known person place event literary work myth, or work of art One of the masters of the form was Du Fu, who wrote during the Tang Dynasty (8th century). Du Fu ( 712–770 was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by There are several variations on the basic form of the jintishi. Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem"

Sestina

Main article: Sestina

The sestina has six stanzas, each comprising six unrhymed lines, in which the words at the end of the first stanza’s lines reappear in a rolling pattern in the other stanzas. A sestina (also sextina, sestine, or sextain) is a highly structured Poem consisting of six six-line Stanzas followed by a Tercet The poem then ends with a three-line stanza in which the words again appear, two on each line.

Villanelle

Main article: Villanelle

The Villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. A villanelle is a poetic form which entered English-language poetry in the 1800s from the imitation of French models Wystan Hugh Auden (21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973 ˈwɪstən ˈhjuː ˈɔːdən who signed his works W A villanelle is a poetic form which entered English-language poetry in the 1800s from the imitation of French models The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme. The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late nineteenth century by such poets as Dylan Thomas,^[62] W. H. Auden,^[63] and Elizabeth Bishop. Dylan Marlais Thomas (27 October 1914 – 9 November 1953 was a Welsh poet who wrote exclusively in English Wystan Hugh Auden (21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973 ˈwɪstən ˈhjuː ˈɔːdən who signed his works W Elizabeth Bishop ( February 8, 1911 &ndash October 6, 1979) was an American Poet and Writer from Worcester ^[64] It is a form that has gained increased use at a time when the use of received forms of poetry has generally been declining.

Pantoum

Main article: Pantoum

The pantoum is a rare form of poetry similar to a villanelle. The pantoum is a form of Poetry similar to a Villanelle. It is composed of a series of Quatrains the second and fourth lines of each Stanza are It is composed of a series of quatrains; the second and fourth lines of each stanza are repeated as the first and third lines of the next.

Tanka

Main articles: Waka (poetry)#tanka and Tanka

The Tanka is a form of Japanese poetry, generally not possessing rhyme, with five lines structured in a 5-7-5 7-7 patterns. See Waka and Tanka (disambiguation for other usages Waka (和歌 or Yamato uta is a genre of Japanese poetry Kakinomoto no Hitomaro (柿本 人麻呂 c 662 - 710 was a Japanese poet and aristocrat of the late Asuka period. See Waka and Tanka (disambiguation for other usages Waka (和歌 or Yamato uta is a genre of Japanese poetry When Japanese poets first encountered Chinese poetry, it was at its peak in the Tang Dynasty. The 5-7-5 phrase (the "upper phrase") and the 7-7 phrase (the "lower phrase") generally show a shift in tone and subject matter. Tanka were written as early as the Nara period by such poets as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where much of its poetry followed Chinese form. The of the History of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794. Kakinomoto no Hitomaro (柿本 人麻呂 c 662 - 710 was a Japanese poet and aristocrat of the late Asuka period. Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry, and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes. It thus had a more informal poetic diction. By the 13th century, Tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, and it is still widely written today.

Haiku

Main article: Haiku

Haiku is a popular form of traditional Japanese poetry. is a form of Japanese poetry. Previously called As it has evolved in recent centuries, haiku is a 17-onji verse comprising three metrical units of 5, 7, and 5 onji. On (音 is a Japanese word corresponding to a sound onji （音字）corresponds to "sound symbol" The onji is a linguistic idea identical in concept with that of mora. Mora (plural moras or morae) is a unit of sound used in Phonology that determines Syllable weight (which in turn determines stress Onji are not syllables.

Ruba'i

Main article: Ruba'i

Four lines of verse practised by Arabian and Persian poets. " Rubāʿī " (رباعی is Arabic for " Quatrain " and is used to describe a Persian quatrain or its derivative For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Omar Khayyam is famous for his Rubaiyat. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین The most famous translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam from Persian into English was done by Edward Fitzgerald. Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ( Persian: رباعیات عمر خیام The Rubáiyát ( Arabic: رباعیات is a collection of Poems Edward Fitzgerald may refer to Edward FitzGerald 7th Duke of Leinster Lord Edward FitzGerald, Irish revolutionary An example is given below:

They say the Lion and the Lizard keep

The Courts where Jamshyd gloried and drank deep:

And Bahram, that great Hunter--the Wild Ass

Stamps o'er his Head, and he lies fast asleep.

Sijo

Main article: Sijo

A short musical lyric practised by Korean poets. Sijo (ɕidʑo is a purely Korean poetic form Bucolic, metaphysical and Cosmological themes are often explored They are usually written in three lines. The lines average 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46. There is a pause in the middle of each line and so, in English, Sijo are sometimes printed in six lines instead of three. Sijo (ɕidʑo is a purely Korean poetic form Bucolic, metaphysical and Cosmological themes are often explored An example is given below:

You ask how many friends I have? Water and stone, bamboo and pine.

The moon rising over the eastern hill is a joyful comrade.

Besides these five companions, what other pleasure should I ask?

Ode

Main article: Ode

Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as Pindar,^[65] and Latin, such as Horace. Ode (from the Ancient Greek) is a form of stately and elaborate lyrical verse. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace Ode (from the Ancient Greek) is a form of stately and elaborate lyrical verse. Pindar (ˈpɪndɚ (or Pindarus, Greek:) (probably born 522 BC in Cynoscephalae a village in Boeotia; died 443 BC in Argos) was an Ancient Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace Forms of odes appear in many of the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins. ^[66] The ode generally has three parts: a strophe, an antistrophe, and an epode. Strophe ( Greek στροφή, turn bend twist, see also Phrase) is a concept in versification which properly Antistrophe ( Greek αντιστροφή, turn back) is the portion of an Ode sung by the chorus in its returning movement from west to east Epode, in verse, is the third part of an Ode, which followed the Strophe and the Antistrophe, and completed the movement The antistrophes of the ode possess similar metrical structures and, depending on the tradition, similar rhyme structures. In contrast, the epode is written with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction, and generally deal with a serious subject. The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode. Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Persian poetry. Qasida (also spelled qasidah) in Arabic: قصيدة, plural qasā'id, قــصــائـد; in Persian: قصیده Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost

Ghazal

Main article: Ghazal

The ghazal (Persian/Urdu/Arabic: غزل) is a form of poetry common in Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Bengali poetry. In Poetry, the ghazal ( Arabic / Persian / Urdu: غزل; Hindi: ग़ज़ल Turkish gazel) is a Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Urdu poetry ( Urdu: اردو شاعری, Urdu Shayari) is one of the most dominant and prominent poetries of times and has many different colours & types Like the Bengali language, Bengali poetry traces its lineage to Pāli and other Prakrit socio-cultural traditions In classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line (which need be of only a few syllables). A refrain (from Vulgar Latin refringere, "to repeat" and later from Old French refraindre) is the Line or lines that are Each line has an identical meter, and there is a set pattern of rhymes in the first couplet and among the refrains. Each couplet forms a complete thought and stands alone, and the overall ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity. The last couplet generally includes the signature of the author.

As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism, and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical themes well. Among the masters of the form is Rumi, a Persian poet who lived in Turkey. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches

Other forms

Main articles: Acrostic, Cinquain, Concrete poetry, and Free verse

Other forms of poetry include acrostic poetry, in which letter patterns create multiple messages (such as where the first lettres of lines, read downward, form a separate phrase or word), and concrete poetry, which uses word arrangement, typeface, color or other visual effects to complement or dramatize the meaning of the words used; cinquains, which have five lines with two, four, six, eight, and two syllables, respectively, and free verse, which is based on the irregular rhythmic cadence or the recurrence, with variations, of phrases, images, and syntactical patterns rather than the conventional use of meter. An acrostic (from the late Greek akróstichon, from ákros, "top" and stíchos, "verse" is a Poem or other Writing Cinquain refers in general to any Stanza or short poem of five lines Concrete poetry, pattern poetry or shape poetry is Poetry in which the typographical arrangement of words is as important in conveying the intended effect Free verse is a term describing various styles of Poetry that are written without using strict meter or Rhyme, but that still are recognizable as poetry

Poetic genres

In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics. ^[67] Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. ^[68] Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works. ^[69]

Epic poems are one commonly identified genre, often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation ^[70] Lyric poetry, which tends to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative, is another 'commonly identified genre. Some commentators may organize bodies of poetry into further subgenres, and individual poems may be seen as a part of many different genres. ^[71] In many cases, poetic genres show common features as a result of a common tradition, even across cultures. Greek lyric poetry influenced the genre's development from India to Europe. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c

Described below are some common genres, but the classification of genres, the description of their characteristics, and even the reasons for undertaking a classification into genres can take many forms.

Narrative poetry

Main article: Narrative poetry

Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Narrative poetry is Poetry that tells a story The poems may be short or long and the story it relates to may be simple or complex Geoffrey Chaucer (c 1343 – 25 October 1400? was an English author poet Philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and Diplomat. Narrative poetry is Poetry that tells a story The poems may be short or long and the story it relates to may be simple or complex Broadly it subsumes epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more direct appeal than the epic to human interest. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation A human interest story is a News story that discusses a person or persons in an interactive and/or emotional way

Narrative poetry may be the oldest genre of poetry. Many scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed from compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes and were more suitable for an evening's entertainment. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. Narrative poetry is Poetry that tells a story The poems may be short or long and the story it relates to may be simple or complex Much narrative poetry — such as Scots and English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems — is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland A ballad is a Poem usually set to Music; thus it often is a story told in a Song. The Balts or Baltic peoples (People who live by the Baltic Sea) defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European Performance poetry is Poetry that is specifically composed for or during performance before an audience Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliteration and kennings, once served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International Alliteration is the repetition of the first Consonant sound in a phrase A kenning ( Old Norse kenning, Modern Icelandic pronunciation) is a Circumlocution used instead of an ordinary Noun in Old Norse In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Etymology The word is a Loanword from descendant languages of Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2

Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Chaucer, William Langland, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred Tennyson. Narrative poetry is Poetry that tells a story The poems may be short or long and the story it relates to may be simple or complex Publius Ovidius Naso ( March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD was a Roman poet known to the English -speaking world as Ovid who wrote on many topics including Geoffrey Chaucer (c 1343 – 25 October 1400? was an English author poet Philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and Diplomat. William Langland (ca 1332 - ca 1386 is the conjectured Author of the 14th-century English Dream-vision Piers Plowman. Luís Vaz de Camões (luˈiʃ vaʃ dɨ kaˈmõĩʃ sometimes rendered in English from old Portuguese as Camoens) (c William Shakespeare ( baptised Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744 is generally regarded as the greatest English Poet of the eighteenth century best known for his Satirical Robert Burns (25 January 1759 – 21 July 1796 (also known as Rabbie Burns, Scotland's favourite son, the Ploughman Poet, the Bard of Ayrshire Adam Bernard Mickiewicz (pronounced ] in Belarusian, Адам Міцкевіч; in Lithuanian, Adomas Bernardas Mickevičius; December Edgar Allan Poe (January 19 1809 – October 7 1849 was an American poet, short-story Writer, editor and Literary critic, Alfred Tennyson 1st Baron Tennyson (6 August 1809 – 6 October 1892 was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom and remains one of the most popular English poets

Epic poetry

Main article: Epic poetry

Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative literature. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Valmiki ( Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि vālmīki) (ca 400 BCE northern India is celebrated as the poet harbinger in Sanskrit literature A narrative or story is a construct created in a suitable format (written spoken poetry prose images song Theater, or Dance) that describes a sequence of It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group of persons. A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" Examples of epic poems include Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Vergil's Aeneid, the Nibelungenlied and Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas, Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Valmiki's Ramayana, Ferdowsi's Shahnama, and the Epic of King Gesar. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or For the group of nine Ancient Egyptian deities see Ennead. The Aeneid (əˈniːɪd in The Nibelungenlied, translated as The Song of the Nibelungs, is an epic poem in Middle High German. Luís Vaz de Camões (luˈiʃ vaʃ dɨ kaˈmõĩʃ sometimes rendered in English from old Portuguese as Camoens) (c Os Lusíadas, pron. uʃ lu'ziɐdɐʃ (usually known by the title The Lusiads in English is a Portuguese epic poem The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. Valmiki ( Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि vālmīki) (ca 400 BCE northern India is celebrated as the poet harbinger in Sanskrit literature The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc The Epic of King Gesar is the central epic poem of Tibet and much of Central Asia. While the composition of epic poetry, and of long poems generally, became less common in the west after the early 20th century, a number of notable epics have continued to be written. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation The long poem is a literary genre including all Poetry of considerable length For example, Derek Walcott won the Nobel prize to a great extent on the basis of his epic, Omeros. Derek Alton Walcott (born January 23, 1930) is a West Indies poet playwright writer and visual artist who writes mainly in English. " Omeros " is a 1990 poem by Derek Walcott. Many consider it the finest work of this Nobel Prize winning author ^[72]

Dramatic poetry

Main articles: Verse drama and dramatic verse, Theatre of ancient Greece, Sanskrit drama, Chinese Opera, and Noh

Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying and sometimes related forms in many cultures. Verse drama is any Drama written as verse to be spoken another possible general term is poetic drama. The theatre of ancient Greece, or ancient Greek drama, is a theatrical Culture that flourished in ancient Greece between c Drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC although its exact origins remain unknown Chinese Opera ( Chinese: 戏曲/戲曲 Pinyin: xìqǔ is a popular form of Drama and Musical theatre in China with roots going back or is a major form of classic Japanese musical Drama that has been performed since the 14th century ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Verse drama is any Drama written as verse to be spoken another possible general term is poetic drama. Drama is the specific mode of Fiction represented in Performance. A verse is generally considered to be a single line in a metrical composition e Verse drama may have developed out of earlier oral epics, such as the Sanskrit and Greek epics. ^[73] Greek tragedy in verse dates to the sixth century B. C. , and may have been one of the influences on the development of Sanskrit drama,^[74], just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the bainwen verse dramas in China, the forerunning of the Chinese Opera. Chinese Opera ( Chinese: 戏曲/戲曲 Pinyin: xìqǔ is a popular form of Drama and Musical theatre in China with roots going back ^[75]East Asian verse dramas also notably include the Noh form in Japan. or is a major form of classic Japanese musical Drama that has been performed since the 14th century

Satirical poetry

Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. Satire is often strictly defined as a literary genre or form; although in practice it is also found in the graphic and Performing arts In satire human The punch of an insult delivered in verse can be many times more powerful and memorable than that of the same insult, spoken or written in prose. An insult (also called putdown) is an expression statement or behavior that is considered degrading A verse is generally considered to be a single line in a metrical composition e For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. The Greeks and Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions A notable example is the Roman Martial's epigrams, whose insults stung the entire spectrum of society. Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial) (March 1 40 AD - ca An epigram is a short Poem, often with a clever twist at the end or a concise and witty statement A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions

The same is true of the English satirical tradition. John Dryden (– was an influential English poet Literary critic, Translator and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England John Wilmot may refer to John Wilmot 2nd Earl of Rochester (1647&ndash1680 English libertine friend of King Charles II and writer of satirical and bawdy Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage (1765–1805 Portuguese Poet, was a native of Setubal. Embroiled in the feverish politics of the time and stung by an attack on him by his former friend, Thomas Shadwell (a Whig), John Dryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe, one of the greatest pieces of sustained invective in the English language, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T. Thomas Shadwell (c 1642 &ndash 19 November 1692) was an English Playwright and miscellaneous Writer who was appointed John Dryden (– was an influential English poet Literary critic, Translator and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England A Poet Laureate is a Poet officially appointed by a government and is often expected to compose poems for State occasions and other government events Mac Flecknoe is a verse Mock-heroic Satire written by John Dryden. S. " In this, the late, notably mediocre poet, Richard Flecknoe, was imagined to be contemplating who should succeed him as ruler "of all the realms of Nonsense absolute" to "reign and wage immortal war on wit. Richard Flecknoe (c 1600-1678? English Dramatist and Poet, the object of Dryden 's satire was probably of English birth although there is "

Another master of 17th-century English satirical poetry was John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester. For other people of this name see John Rochester. John Wilmot 2nd Earl of Rochester ( April 1, 1647 &ndash July 26 He was known for ruthless satires such as "A Satyr Against Mankind" (1675) and a "A Satyr on Charles II. "

Another exemplar of English satirical poetry was Alexander Pope, who famously chided critics in his Essay on Criticism (1709). Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744 is generally regarded as the greatest English Poet of the eighteenth century best known for his Satirical The word critic comes from the Greek el κριτικός ( el-Latn kritikós) "able to discern" which in turn derives from the word An Essay on Criticism was the first major poem written by the English writer Alexander Pope (1688-1744

Dryden and Pope were writers of epic poetry, and their satirical style was accordingly epic; but there is no prescribed form for satirical poetry. Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744 is generally regarded as the greatest English Poet of the eighteenth century best known for his Satirical An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation

The greatest satirical poets outside England include Poland's Ignacy Krasicki and Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, commonly known as Bocage. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Ignacy Krasicki (February 3 1735 March 14 1801 from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno (thus Primate of Poland) was Poland 's leading Enlightenment Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage (1765–1805 Portuguese Poet, was a native of Setubal.

Lyric poetry

Main article: Lyric poetry

Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic poetry and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music Christine de Pizan ( also seen as de Pisan) (1363–c1434 was a writer of the Medieval era who strongly challenged Misogyny and stereotypes that Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Verse drama is any Drama written as verse to be spoken another possible general term is poetic drama. Rather than depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of mind, and perceptions. The word feeling has several possible definitions The word was first used in the English language to describe the physical sensation of Touch either through experience In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. While the genre's name, derived from "lyre," implies that it is intended to be sung, much lyric poetry is meant purely for reading. The lyre is a stringed musical instrument well known for its use in Classical Antiquity and later A song is a Musical composition. Songs contain vocal parts that are performed 'sung' and generally feature Words ( Lyrics) commonly followed

Though lyric poetry has long celebrated love, many courtly-love poets also wrote lyric poems about war and peace, nature and nostalgia, grief and loss. Courtly love was a Medieval European conception of ennobling love which found its genesis in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence Notable among these are the 15th century French lyric poets, Christine de Pizan and Charles, Duke of Orléans. Christine de Pizan ( also seen as de Pisan) (1363–c1434 was a writer of the Medieval era who strongly challenged Misogyny and stereotypes that Charles of Valois Duke of Orléans ( November 24, 1394 &ndash January 5, 1465) became Duke of Orléans in 1407 following the murder Spiritual and religious themes were addressed by such medieval lyric poets as St. John of the Cross and Teresa of Ávila. Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos For another saint who lived around the same time and area see John of Avila. For other saints with similar names please see Saint Teresa. Saint Teresa of Ávila, known in religion as Saint Teresa of Jesus and The tradition of lyric poetry based on spiritual experience was continued by later poets such as John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins and T. S. Eliot. John Donne (pronounced like done, dʌn 1572 – 31 March 1631 was a Jacobean poet preacher and a major representative of the Metaphysical poets Gerard Manley Hopkins ( 28 July 1844 – 8 June, 1889) was an English Poet, Roman Catholic convert and Thomas Stearns Eliot, OM (September 26 1888 – January 4 1965 was a poet Dramatist, and Literary critic.

Although the most popular form for western lyric poetry to take may be the 14-line sonnet, as practiced by Petrarch and Shakespeare, lyric poetry shows a bewildering variety of forms, including increasingly, in the 20th century, unrhymed ones. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar William Shakespeare ( baptised This article is about the poetic technique For the form of ice see Rime ice. This the most common type of poetry, as it deals intricately with the author's own emotions and views. Due to this fact, lyric poems of the First-person narrative are often accused of navel-gazing, and may be scorned by other, less self-centered, poets. See also First person First-person narrative is a Narrative mode in which a Story is narrated by one character, who explicitly Omphaloskepsis is the contemplation of one's Navel as an aid to Meditation.

Verse fable

Main article: Fable

The fable is an ancient and near-ubiquitous literary genre, often (though not invariably) set in verse form. Ignacy Krasicki (February 3 1735 March 14 1801 from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno (thus Primate of Poland) was Poland 's leading Enlightenment A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are A literary genre is a category of literary composition Genres may be determined by Literary technique, tone, Content, or even (as in the case of fiction A verse is generally considered to be a single line in a metrical composition e It is a brief, succinct story that features anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "moral"). Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects A moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event Verse fables have used a variety of meter and rhyme patterns; Ignacy Krasicki, for example, in his Fables and Parables, used 13-syllable lines in rhyming couplets. A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. This article is about the poetic technique For the form of ice see Rime ice. Ignacy Krasicki (February 3 1735 March 14 1801 from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno (thus Primate of Poland) was Poland 's leading Enlightenment Fables and Parables ( Bajki i przypowieści, 1779 by Ignacy Krasicki, is a noted work in a long international tradition of fable-writing that A syllable ( Greek:) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds A couplet is a pair of lines of verse. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter

Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop (mid-6th century BCE), Vishnu Sarma (ca. A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are Aesop (also spelled Æsop, from the Greek Αἴσωπος — Aisōpos) (620-560 BC) known only for the genre of Fables Ancient Greece Poets (by date of birth Anacreon (c 570 BCE Teos Xenophanes of Colophon Vishnu Sarma was the author of the anthropomorphic political treatise called Panchatantra. 200 BCE), Phaedrus (15 BCE–50 CE), Marie de France (12th century), Biernat of Lublin (1465?–after 1529), Jean de La Fontaine (1621–95), Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801), Ivan Krylov (1769–1844) and Ambrose Bierce (1842–1914). China Poets (by date of birth Jia Yi (200 - 168 BCE Sima Xiangru (179-117 BCE Western Han Phaedrus (c 15 BC – c AD 50) Roman Fabulist, was probably a Thracian slave born in Pydna of Macedonia (Roman province Roman republic / Roman empire Poets (by date of birth Lucretius (94 - 49 BCE Catullus (84 -54 BCE Roman empire Poets (by date of birth Columella (4-70 Cadiz ? Persius (34-62 Etruscan Marie de France ("Mary of France" was a Poet evidently born in France and living in England during the late 12th century Biernat of Lublin ( Polish: Biernat z Lublina, 1465 ? &ndash after 1529) was a Polish Poet, fabulist and Ignacy Krasicki (February 3 1735 March 14 1801 from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno (thus Primate of Poland) was Poland 's leading Enlightenment Ivan Andreyevich Krylov (Ива́н Андре́евич Крыло́в ( February 13, 1769 - November 21, 1844) is Russia's best known Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce (June 24 1842 &ndash 1914? was an American Editorialist Journalist, short-story writer and Satirist. All of Aesop's translators and successors have owed a fundamental debt to that semi-legendary fabulist. Aesop (also spelled Æsop, from the Greek Αἴσωπος — Aisōpos) (620-560 BC) known only for the genre of Fables Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text likewise called a " translation A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are

Prose poetry

Main article: Prose poetry

Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that demonstrates attributes of both prose and poetry. This article refers to a poetic form For the competitive speech event see Prose & Poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story (aka the "short short story," "flash fiction"). Flash fiction is Fiction characterized by its extreme brevity (Main list of acronyms and initialisms a - (s Atto A - (s Ampere A - (i acro (joke acronym Flash fiction is Fiction characterized by its extreme brevity Flash fiction is Fiction characterized by its extreme brevity Most critics argue that it qualifies as poetry because of its conciseness, use of metaphor, and special attention to language. Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects

While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Aloysius Bertrand was the writing pseudonym of Louis-Jacques-Napoléon Bertrand ( April 20, 1807 in Ceva ( Piedmont, Italy "Rimbaud" redirects here For other uses see Rimbaud (disambiguation Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud (ræm'boʊ or in French aʁtyʁ Stéphane Mallarmé (malaʁ'me ( March 18, 1842 – September 9, 1898) whose real name was Étienne Mallarmé, was a French

The genre has subsequently found notable exemplars:

• English: Oscar Wilde, T. S. Eliot, Gertrude Stein, Sherwood Anderson, Allen Ginsberg, Seamus Heaney, Russell Edson, Robert Bly, Charles Simic
• French: Francis Ponge
• Italian: Eugenio Montale, Salvatore Quasimodo, Giuseppe Ungaretti, Umberto Saba
• Polish: Bolesław Prus, Zbigniew Herbert
• Portuguese: Fernando Pessoa, Mário Cesariny, Mário De Sá-Carneiro, Eugénio de Andrade, Al Berto, Alexandre O'Neill, José Saramago, António Lobo Antunes
• Russian: Ivan Turgenev, Anatoly Kudryavitsky
• Spanish: Octavio Paz, Ángel Crespo
• Swedish: Tomas Tranströmer

Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire journals devoted solely to that genre. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900 was an Irish Playwright, Novelist, poet and Author of Thomas Stearns Eliot, OM (September 26 1888 – January 4 1965 was a poet Dramatist, and Literary critic. Gertrude Stein ( February 3, 1874 &ndash July 27, 1946) was an American Writer who spent most of her life in France Sherwood Anderson (September 13 1876 &ndash March 8 1941 was an American writer mainly of short stories, most notably the collection Winesburg Ohio Irwin Allen Ginsberg (ˈgɪnzbɝg (June 3 1926 &ndash April 5 1997 was an American Poet. Russell Edson (born 1935 in Connecticut) is an American Poet. Robert Bly (born December 23, 1926 in Madison Minnesota) is an American Poet, Author, activist and Charles Simic (ˈtʃ​͡ɑːɻls ˈʂimitɕ​͡ born Dušan Simić, May 9, 1938 in Belgrade, Serbia) is a Serbian French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Francis Jean Gaston Alfred Ponge ( March 27, 1899 - August 6, 1988) was a French Essayist and Poet. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Eugenio Montale ( October 12, 1896 — September 12, 1981) was an Italian Poet, prose writer editor and translator Salvatore Quasimodo ( August 20, 1901 - June 14, 1968) was an Italian author Giuseppe Ungaretti ( February 8, 1888 &ndash June 2, 1970) was an Italian modernist poet journalist essayist critic Umberto Saba ( March 9, 1883 - August 26, 1957) was the Pseudonym of Italian poet and novelist Umberto Poli Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Bolesław Prus (pronounced [bɔ'lεswaf 'prus]; Hrubieszów, August 20 1847 &ndash May 19 1912 Warsaw) whose actual name was Zbigniew Herbert (29 October 1924 in Lvov – 28 July 1998 in Warsaw) was an influential Polish Poet, Essayist, Drama Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. Fernando António Nogueira Pessoa (fɨɾˈnɐ̃du pɨˈsoɐ (b Mário Cesariny de Vasconcelos also known as Mário Cesariny ( August 9 1923, Lisbon Portugal - November 26 2006, Eugénio de Andrade, pseudonym of José Fontinhas, GOSE, GCM (Póvoa de Atalaia Fundão, 19 January 1923 Al Berto was the Pseudonym used by the Portuguese Poet Alberto Raposo Pidwell Tavares ( January 11 1948, Coimbra Alexandre Manuel Vahia de Castro O'Neill de Bulhões, GOSE ( Lisbon, Fontes Pereira de Melo Avenue nr José de Sousa Saramago, GColSE (ʒuˈzɛ sɐɾɐˈmagu born November 16, 1922) is a Nobel-laureate Portuguese António Lobo Antunes, GCSE MD (born September 1, 1942) is a Portuguese Novelist. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev ( ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈgʲeɪvʲɪtɕ turˈgʲenʲɪf ( &ndash) was a Russian novelist and playwright Anthony Kudryavitsky (born in Moscow in 1954 better known by his pen name Anatoly Kudryavitsky, is a Russian-Irish writer Octavio Peazy Paz " ( March 31, 1914 – April 19, 1998) was a Mexican Writer, Poet, and diplomat Ángel Crespo was born in 1926 in Ciudad Real and died in 1995 in Barcelona. Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the Tomas Tranströmer (born April 15, 1931) is a Swedish writer poet and translator whose poetry has been deeply influential in Sweden as well as around

See also

• List of basic poetry topics
• Poetry terminology
• theopoetics
• The years-in-poetry project, accessible through "Centuries in poetry" or "List of years in poetry. This is a Glossary of Poetry terminology Measures of verse Types of metre Below "short/long" definitions of a Syllable Theopoetics is an emerging field of interdisciplinary study combining elements of poetic analysis Process theology, Narrative theology, and Postmodern philosophy This page gives a chronological list of years in poetry (descending order "

Notes

References

Anthologies

Main article: List of poetry anthologies

• Margaret Ferguson, Mary Jo Salter & Jon Stallworthy (Eds). This is a list of anthologies of Poetry. A - C Anthology of Twentieth-Century British and Irish Poetry American Poetry The Norton Anthology of Poetry. New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Co. (4th ed, 1996), ISBN 0393968200 .
• Helen Gardner (Ed). Professor Dame Helen Louise Gardner DBE (13 February 1908 - 4 June 1986 was an English literary critic and academic whose work mainly concerned the poets T New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250-1950. New York, New York and London, England: Oxford University Press, (1972), ISBN 0-19-812136-9.
• Donald Hall (Ed). Donald Hall (born September 20, 1928) is an American Poet and the 14th U New Poets of England and America. New Poets of England and America was a Poetry anthology edited by Donald Hall, Robert Pack and Louis Simpson, and published in New York, New York: Meridian Press, (1957).
• Philip Larkin (Ed). Philip Arthur Larkin, CH, CBE, FRSL (9 August 1922 – 2 December 1985 was an English Poet, Novelist and Jazz Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse. The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse was a Poetry anthology edited by Philip Larkin, and published in 1973 by Oxford University Press New York, New York and London, England: Oxford University Press, (1973)
• James Laughlin (Ed). James Laughlin ( 30 October, 1914 – 12 November, 1997) was an American Poet and literary book publisher who founded New Directions in Prose and Poetry Annuals. New Directions Publishing Corp was founded in 1936 by James Laughlin, then a Harvard University sophomore Norfolk, Connecticut and New York, New York: New Directions Publications (1936–1991).
• Arthur Quiller-Couch (Ed). Sir Arthur Thomas Quiller-Couch (ˌkwɪlɚˈkuʧ ( 21 November 1863 - 12 May 1944) was a Cornish writer, who published under the Oxford Book of English Verse. The Oxford Book of English Verse most commonly means the Oxford Book of English Verse 1250-1900 edited by Arthur Quiller-Couch, an Anthology of English Oxford University Press, (1900).
• W.B. Yeats (Ed). Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892-1935. Oxford University Press, (1936)

Scansion and Form

• Alfred Corn. The Poem's Heartbeat: A Manual of Prosody. London, England: Storyline Press (1997), ISBN 1885266405.
• Paul Fussell. Paul Fussell (born March 22, 1924, Pasadena California, USA is a cultural and literary Historian, and professor emeritus of English literature Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. New York, New York: Random House (1965).
• John Hollander. John Hollander (born October 28, 1929 in New York City) is an American Poet and literary Critic. Rhyme's Reason (3rd ed). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press (2001).
• James McAuley. Versification, A Short Introduction. Michigan State University Press (1983), ISBN B0007DTS8K
• Robert Pinsky. Robert Pinsky (born October 20 1940) is an American Poet, Essayist, literary critic, and Translator. The Sounds of Poetry (1998).

Critical and historical works

• Cleanth Brooks. Cleanth Brooks ( October 16, 1906 - May 10, 1994) was an influential American literary critic and professor The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. New York, New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, (1947).
• William K. Wimsatt, Jr. & Cleanth Brooks. Cleanth Brooks ( October 16, 1906 - May 10, 1994) was an influential American literary critic and professor Literary Criticism: A Short History. New York, New York: Vintage Books, (1957).
• T. S. Eliot. Thomas Stearns Eliot, OM (September 26 1888 – January 4 1965 was a poet Dramatist, and Literary critic. The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism. London, England: Methuen Publishing, Ltd. , (1920).
• George Gascoigne. Certayne Notes of Instruction Concerning the Making of English Verse or Ryme[13].
• Ezra Pound. Ezra Weston Loomis Pound ( Hailey, Idaho Territory, United States October 30 1885 – Venice, Italy November 1 1972 was an American Expatriate ABC of Reading. London, England: Faber, (1951).
• Władysław Tatarkiewicz. Władysław Tatarkiewicz tatarˈkʲevitʂ}} Warsaw, April 3, 1886 &ndash April 4, 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish "The Concept of Poetry," translated by Christopher Kasparek, Dialectics and Humanism: the Polish Philosophical Quarterly, vol. Christopher Kasparek (born 1945 is a Physician, Writer and Polish -to- English translator. II, no. 2 (spring 1975), pp. 13–24.
• John Thompson. The Founding of English Meter. New York, New York: Columbia University Press (1961).

Linguistics and language

• Zhiming Bao. The structure of tone. New York, New York: Oxford University Press (1999) ISBN 0-19-511880-4.
• Morio Kono. "Perception and Psychology of Rhythm" in Accent, Intonation, Rhythm and Pause. (1997).
• Moria Yip. Tone. Cambridge textbooks in linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2002) ISBN 0-521-77314-8 (hbk), ISBN 0-521-77445-4 (pbk).

Other Works

• Alex Preminger, Terry V. F. Brogan and Frank J. Warnke (Eds). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (3rd Ed. ). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-02123-6.

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