Gaius or Caius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius or Caius Plinius Caecilius (61/63 - ca. Year 61 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 63 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. 113), better known as Pliny the Younger, was a lawyer, author, and natural philosopher of Ancient Rome. A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law as an attorney, Counsel or Solicitor; a person An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate him and they were both witnesses to the eruption of Vesuvius on August 24th, 79 AD. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples

Background

City and Lago of Como, painted by Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot, 1834. Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot ( July 17, 1796 &ndash February 22, 1875) was a French landscape painter and Printmaker

Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. No contemporary depiction of Pliny has survived.

Born in Como, northern Italy, the son either of a Lucius Caecilius or a landowner named Gaius Caecilius (born in Como ca. Como is a City in Lombardy, Italy, north of Milan. Situated at the southern tip of the south-west arm of Lake Como, it Related categories Central Italy Southern Italy Insular Italy Northeast Italy 30 AD, son of Gaius Caecilius, born in Como ca. Year 30 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. 1 AD) and his wife Plinia Marcella (born in Verona), Pliny the Younger was also a maternal nephew of Pliny the Elder. Year 1 ( I) was a Common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. Verona is a city and provincial capital in Veneto, Northern Italy. It seems, however, since Gaius Caecilius was the name of his mother's grandfather, that his father was Lucius Caecilius, perhaps the Lucius Caecilius born ca. 15 BC who was a great-grandson of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. ^[1] He revered his uncle, Pliny the Elder, and provides pencil sketches of how his uncle worked on the Naturalis Historia. Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder.

Pliny's father died at an early age when his son was still young; as a result, Pliny probably lived with his mother. His guardian and preceptor in charge of his education is known to have been Lucius Verginius Rufus, famed for quelling a revolt against Nero. Lucius Verginius Rufus (14 - 97 was a Roman commander of upper Germany during the late 1st century most notable for his refusal of the imperial purple in 69 Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called After being first tutored at home, Pliny later travelled to Rome where he furthered his education and was taught rhetoric by the great teacher and author Quintilian and Nicetes Sacerdos of Smyrna. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca 35 – ca 100 was a Roman Rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and It was at this time that Pliny became closer to his uncle Pliny the Elder, and when the elder Pliny died during the Vesuvian eruption, the terms of the will passed the estate to the younger Pliny. Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples In the same document he was adopted by his uncle, changing his name from Gaius Plinius Caecilius to Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, a common practice in Roman culture. Adoption is the act of legally placing a child with a Parent or parents other than those to whom they were born

Pliny was considered an honest and moderate man and rose through a series of Imperial civil and military offices, the cursus honorum (see below). The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring He was a friend of the historian Tacitus and employed the biographer Suetonius in his staff. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Pliny also came into contact with many other well-known men of the period, including the philosophers Artemidorus and Euphrates during his time in Syria. There is another Artemidorus Ephesius, a geographer who lived between the 2nd and 1st centuries BC Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية

He married three times, firstly when he was very young, about eighteen, to a stepdaughter of Veccius Proculus, of whom he became a widower at age 37, secondly to the daughter of Pompeia Celerina, at an unknown date and thirdly to Calpurnia, daughter of Calpurnius and granddaughter of Calpurnus Fabatus of Comum. Como is a City in Lombardy, Italy, north of Milan. Situated at the southern tip of the south-west arm of Lake Como, it Letters survive in which Pliny records this latter marriage taking place, as well as his attachment to Calpurnia and his sadness when they were unable to have children.

Pliny is thought to have died suddenly during his appointment in Bithynia-Pontus, around 112 AD, since no events referred to in his letters date later than that. Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius

Career

Pliny's career began at the age of eighteen and followed a normal route through the cursus honorum (see Career summary below). The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring

Pliny was active in the Roman legal system, especially in the sphere of the Roman centumviral court, which dealt with inheritance cases. The Centumviral court ( centumviri) was the Chancery court of Ancient Rome, a civil court of Justice. Later, he was well-known for prosecuting (and defending) at the trials of a series of provincial governors, including Baebius Massa, governor of Baetica, Marius Priscus, the governor of Africa, Gaius Caecilius Classicus, governor of Baetica and most ironically in light of his later appointment to this province, Gaius Julius Bassus and Varenus Rufus, both governors of Bithynia-Pontus. Hispania Baetica was one of three Imperial Roman provinces in Hispania, (modern Iberia) Hispania Baetica was one of three Imperial Roman provinces in Hispania, (modern Iberia) Gaius Julius Bassus was a Proconsul in Bithynia in 98 before Pliny the Younger who either prosecuted or defended him afterwards. Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius

Pliny's career is commonly considered as a summary of the main Roman public charges and is the best-documented example from this period, offering proof for many aspects of imperial culture. Effectively, Pliny crossed all the principal fields of the organization of the early Roman Empire. It is no mean achievement for a man to have not only survived the reigns of several disparate emperors, especially the much-detested Domitian, but also to have risen in rank throughout. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death

Career summary

Writings

As a literateur, Pliny started writing at the age of fourteen, penning a tragedy in Greek. An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly In the course of his life he wrote a quantity of poetry, most of which was lost despite the great affection he had for it. Also known as a notable orator, he professed himself a follower of Cicero, but his prose was certainly more magniloquent and less direct than Cicero's. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The only oration that now survives is the Panegyricus Trajani. This was pronounced in the Senate in 100 and is a description of Trajan's figure and actions in an adulatory and emphatic form, especially contrasting him with the Emperor Domitian. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death It is, however, a relevant document that allows us to know many details about the Emperor's actions in several fields of his administrative power such as taxes, justice, military discipline, and commerce. Pliny defined it as an essay about the optimus princeps (the perfect ruler). An essay is usually a short piece of writing It is often written from an author's personal point of view.

Epistulae

Eruption of Vesuvius. Painting by Norwegian painter I.C. Dahl (1826)

However, the largest body of Pliny's work which survives is his Letters (Epistulae), a series of personal missives directed to his friends and associates. Johan Christian Claussen Dahl, often known as J C Dahl (letter "J" should be pronounced as the letter "I" in Norwegian ( February 24, 1788 These letters are a unique testimony of Roman administrative history and everyday life in the 1st century. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. The style is very different from that in the Panegyricus and some commentators affirm that Pliny was the initiator of a new particular genre: the letter written for publication. This genre offers a different type of record than the more usual history; one which dispenses with objectivity but is no less valuable for it. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Especially noteworthy among the letters are two in which he describes the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in August of AD 79 during which his uncle Pliny the Elder died (6. 16; 6. 20), and one in which he asks the Emperor for instructions regarding official policy concerning Christians (10. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth 96). Pliny's attention to detail in the letters about Vesuvius is so keen that vulcanologists today describe that type of eruption as a Plinian. Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of Volcanoes, Lava, Magma, and related geological and Geophysical phenomena Plinian eruptions are Volcanic eruptions marked by their similarity to the eruption of Mt In his letter he relates the first warning of the eruption:

On the 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired him to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. He had just taken a turn in the sun and, after bathing himself in cold water, and making a light luncheon, gone back to his books: he immediately arose and went out upon a rising ground from whence he might get a better sight of this very uncommon appearance. A cloud, from which mountain was uncertain, at this distance (but it was found afterwards to come from Mount Vesuvius), was ascending, the appearance of which I cannot give you a more exact description of than by likening it to that of a pine tree, for it shot up to a great height in the form of a very tall trunk, which spread itself out at the top into a sort of branches; occasioned, I imagine, either by a sudden gust of air that impelled it, the force of which decreased as it advanced upwards, or the cloud itself being pressed back again by its own weight, expanded in the manner I have mentioned; it appeared sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted, according as it was either more or less impregnated with earth and cinders. This phenomenon seemed to a man of such learning and research as my uncle extraordinary and worth further looking into.

Naturalis Historia, 1669 edition.

Tacitus

The letters about Vesuvius were written to the historian Tacitus, a long-time friend of Pliny's. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Other major literary figures of the late first century A. D. appear in the collection as friends of Pliny's, e. g. , the poet Martial and the biographer Suetonius. Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial) (March 1 40 AD - ca Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. But the most famous literary figure to appear in his letters is his uncle, Pliny the Elder. His nephew provides details of how his uncle worked tirelessly to finish his magnum opus, the Naturalis Historiae. Magnum opus (sometimes Opus magnum, plural magna opera) from the Latin meaning great work, refers to the best the greatest Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods Since Pliny the Younger was heir to to his uncle's estate, he inherited his uncle's large library, and benefited by the acquisition.

The Epistulae are usually treated as two halves: those in Books 1 to 9, which Pliny prepared for publication, and those in Book 10, all of which were written to or by the Emperor Trajan during Pliny's governorship of Bithynia-Pontus. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius This final book was, significantly, not intended for publication.

Books 1-9

Reconstruction of the roman garden of the House of the Vettii in Pompeii

As already mentioned above, highlights of these books include Pliny's description of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and the death of his uncle and mentor, Pliny the Elder. In Pompeii one of the most famous of the luxurious residences a Domus rather than a villa, is the so-called "House of the Vettii" Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples and Caserta in the Italian region of Campania, in The first letter (1. 1), directed to Gaius Septicius Clarus, is also notable for giving Pliny's reasons for collecting his letters. Those which give details of Pliny's life at his country villas are important documents in the history of garden design. A Roman villa is a Villa that was built or lived in during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire. This entry concerns the history of ornamental gardening considered as an amenity of civilized life as a vehicle for style for conspicuous show and even an expression of philosophy They are the world's oldest sources of the information on how gardens were used in the ancient world and the considerations which went into their design.

The content of this section of the letters evolves over time. Pliny's career as a young man is very fully described in the earlier letters, which include tributes to notable figures such as Marcus Valerius Martialis, Pliny's protege (3. Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial) (March 1 40 AD - ca 21). Advice is offered to friends, references are given, political support is discussed and Pliny comments on many other aspects of Roman life, using established literary style. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice However, by the last two books the subject matter is more contemplative.

Chronologically, it is suggested that Books 1 to 3 were written between 97 and 102, Books 4 to 7 were composed between 103 and 107 and Books 8 and 9 cover 108 and 109. Year 97 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. These books were probably intermittently published between 99 and 109. Year 99 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.

Book 10

The emperor Trajan

As already mentioned, the letters of Book 10 are addressed to or from the Emperor Trajan in their entirety, and it is generally assumed that we have received them verbatim. As such, they offer a unique insight into the administrative functions of a Roman province of the time, as well as the machinations of the Roman system of patronage and wider cultural mores of Rome itself. A province is a territorial unit almost always an Administrative division. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 In addition, the corruption and apathy which occurred at various levels of the provinicial system can be seen clearly. In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa Of especial significance is X.96, which is the earliest external account of Christian worship and reasons for the execution of Christians. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment.

The letter regarding Christians deserves mention because its contents were, in the view of many historians, to become the standard policy toward Christians for the rest of the pagan era. Taken together, Pliny's letter and Trajan's response constituted a fairly loose policy toward Christians. Christians were not to be sought out, but executed if brought before a magistrate by a reputable means of accusation (no anonymous charges were permitted) and they were to be given the opportunity to recant. While some persecutions represent a departure from this policy, many historians have concluded that these precedents were nominal for the Empire across time.

Fortunately, Trajan's replies to Pliny's queries and requests were also collected for publication, making the anthology even more valuable. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who The letters thus allow us a wonderful glimpse of the personalities of both Pliny and Trajan. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who

Stylistically, Book 10 is much simpler than its precursors because it was not intended for publication by Pliny. It is generally assumed that this book was published after Pliny's death, and Suetonius, as a member of Pliny's staff, has been suggested as one possible editor.

Manuscripts

In France Giovanni Giocondo discovered a manuscript of Pliny the Younger's letters containing his correspondence with Trajan. Fra Giovanni Giocondo (c 1433 &ndash 1515 was an Italian Architect, Antiquary, Archaeologist, and Classical scholar. He published it in Paris dedicating the work to Louis XII. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Louis XII ( June 27, 1462 – January 1, 1515) called "the Father of the People" (Le Père du Peuple was the thirty-fifth king Two Italian editions of Pliny's Epistles were published by Giocondo, one printed in Bologna in 1498 and one from the press of Aldus Manutius in 1508. Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy Aldus Manutius (1449/1450 – February 6, 1515) the Latinized name of Teobaldo Mannucci, sometimes called Aldus Manutius the Elder to distinguish

See also

• Herculaneum
• Misenum
• Pompeii
• Stabiae

References

1. ^ Manuel Dejante Pinto de Magalhães Arnao Metello and João Carlos Metello de Nápoles, "Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma", Torres Novas, 1998

Bibliography

• [1949] (2003) in Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth (eds. Herculaneum (in modern Italian Ercolano) is an ancient Roman town located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano. Misenum is the site of an ancient port in Campania, in southern Italy. Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples and Caserta in the Italian region of Campania, in Stabiae was an ancient Roman town located close to the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia approximately 4 Simon Hornblower is Professor of Classics and Grote Professor of Ancient History at University College London. ): Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1198. The Oxford Classical Dictionary ( OCD) is the standard one-volume Encyclopedia in English of topics relating to Ancient Greece and Oxford is currently bidding for the 2010 Wikimania Conference Oxford () is a city, and the County town of Oxfordshire, ISBN 0-19-860641-9.  
• Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus [1963] (1969). The Letters of the Younger Pliny, trans. Betty Radice, London: Penguin Books. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. ISBN 0-14-044127-1.  

Further reading

• Albert A. Bell, Jr. , "A Note on Revision and Authenticity in Pliny's Letters," American Journal of Philology 1989, pp. 460-466.

• Albert A. Bell, Jr. , "Pliny the Younger: The Kinder, Gentler Roman," Classical Bulletin 1990, pp. 37-41.

• Albert A. Bell, Jr. , All Roads Lead to Murder: A Case from the Notebooks of Pliny the Younger. Ingalls Publishing Group, 2002. A novel featuring Pliny and Tacitus as sleuths.

• Manuel Dejante Pinto de Magalhães Arnao Metello and João Carlos Metello de Nápoles, "Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma", Torres Novas, 1998.

• E. S. Dobson, "Pliny the Younger's Depiction of Women," Classical Bulletin 1982, pp. 81-85.

• Betty Radice, "Pliny and the Panegyricus," Greece & Rome 1968, 166-172.

• A. N. Sherwin-White, The Letters of Pliny: A Social and Historical Commentary, Oxford, 1966.

• A. N. Sherwin-White, "Pliny, the Man and his Letters," Greece & Rome 1969, pp. 76-89.

• Ronald Syme, "People in Pliny," Journal of Roman Studies 1968, pp. 135-151.

External links

• Works by Pliny the Younger at Project Gutenberg
• The younger Pliny's works at the Latin Library (Latin)
• Livius.org: Pliny the Younger