Household items made out of plastics materials.

Plastics is the general term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic polymerization products. In Polymer chemistry, polymerization is a process of reacting Monomer Molecules together in a Chemical reaction to form three-dimensional networks They are composed of organic condensation or addition polymers and may contain other substances to improve performance or reduce costs. Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation A condensation reaction is a Chemical reaction in which two Molecules or moieties ( Functional groups) combine to form one single molecule together with A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds There are many natural polymers generally considered to be "plastics". Plastics can be formed into many different types of objects, or films, or fibers. An artificial membrane, also called a synthetic membrane, is a membrane prepared for separation tasks in Laboratory and industry Synthetic fibers are the result of extensive research by Scientists to improve upon naturally occurring Animal and plant Their name is derived from the malleability, or plasticity, of many of them. The "s" in "plastics" is there to distinguish between the polymer and the way a material deforms. For example, aluminum is a ductile material and can undergo "plastic" deformation when the material undergoes stress from a force and results in a strain of which it will not return. "Plastics" refers to the polymer material. The word derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos), "fit for molding", from πλαστός (plastos) "molded"^[1][2]. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly

Overview

Plastics can be classified in many ways, but most commonly by their polymer backbone (polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, polymethyl methacrylate, and other acrylics, silicones, polyurethanes, etc. Polyethylene or polythene ( IUPAC name poly(ethene) is a Thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (notably the Poly(methyl methacrylate ( PMMA) or poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate is a Thermoplastic and transparent Plastic. In Organic chemistry, the acryl group is the Functional group with structure H 2 C =CH-C(= O)- it is the Acyl group Silicones are largely inert compounds with a wide variety of forms and uses A polyurethane, commonly abbreviated PU, is any Polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by urethane links ). Other classifications include thermoplastic, thermoset, elastomer, engineering plastic, addition or condensation or polyaddition (depending on polymerization method used), and glass transition temperature or T_g. A thermoplastic is a Plastic that Melts to a liquid when heated and freezes to a Brittle, very Glassy state when cooled sufficiently Thermosetting plastics thermosets are Polymer materials that irreversibly cure form An elastomer is a Polymer with the property of Elasticity. The term which is derived from elastic polymer, is often used interchangeably with the term Engineering plastics are a group of Plastic materials that exhibit superior mechanical and thermal properties in a wide range of conditions over and above more commonly used The glass transition temperature, T g is the temperature at which an Amorphous solid, such as Glass or a Polymer, becomes brittle ^[3]

Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point (the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome) and one or more glass transitions (temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating An amorphous solid is a Solid in which there is no Long-range order of the positions of the Atoms (Solids in which there is long-range atomic order are In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. In Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, intermolecular forces are forces that act between stable Molecules or between functional groups of The glass transition temperature, T g is the temperature at which an Amorphous solid, such as Glass or a Polymer, becomes brittle So-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers, poly (methyl methacrylate), and all thermosets. An amorphous solid is a Solid in which there is no Long-range order of the positions of the Atoms (Solids in which there is long-range atomic order are

Plastics are polymers: long chains of atoms bonded to one another. A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 in molecular mass, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight. The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one These chains are made up of many repeating molecular units, known as "repeat units", derived from "monomers"; each polymer chain will have several 1000's of repeat units. A monomer (from Greek mono "one" and meros "part" is a small Molecule that may become chemically bonded to other The vast majority of plastics are composed of polymers of carbon and hydrogen alone or with oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine or sulfur in the backbone. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 (Some of commercial interest are silicon based. Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 ) The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a large number of repeat units together. To vary the properties of plastics, both the repeat unit with different molecular groups "hanging" or "pendant" from the backbone, (usually they are "hung" as part of the monomers before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain). This customization by repeat unit's molecular structure has allowed plastics to become such an indispensable part of twenty first-century life by fine tuning the properties of the polymer.

Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.

People experimented with plastics based on natural polymers for centuries. In the nineteenth century a plastic material based on chemically modified natural polymers was discovered: Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanization of rubber (1839) and Alexander Parkes, English inventor (1813—1890) created the earliest form of plastic in 1855. Charles Goodyear ( December 29, 1800 - July 1, 1860) was the first American to vulcanize rubber, a process which he discovered in Vulcanization (or Vulcanisation refers to a specific curing process of Rubber involving high heat and the addition of Sulfur or other equivalent curatives Year 1839 ( MDCCCXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Alexander Parkes ( December 29 1813 - June 29 1890) was a Metallurgist and Inventor from Birmingham, He mixed pyroxylin, a partially nitrated form of cellulose (cellulose is the major component of plant cell walls), with alcohol and camphor. This produced a hard but flexible transparent material, which he called "Parkesine. " The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented by Leo Hendrik Baekeland in 1909, the product being known as Bakelite. A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds Leo Hendrik Baekeland ( Sint-Martens-Latem (near Ghent) November 14, 1863 - February 23, 1944) was a Belgian Year 1909 ( MCMIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Bakelite (ˈbеɪkɨlaɪt is a material based on the thermosetting Phenol formaldehyde resin polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride developed in 1907–1909 by Subsequently poly (vinyl chloride), polystyrene, polyethylene (polyethene), polypropylene (polypropene), polyamides (nylons), polyesters, acrylics, silicones, polyurethanes were amongst the many varieties of plastics developed and have great commercial success.

The development of plastics has come from the use of natural materials (e. g. , chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified natural materials (e. Shellac is the commercial resin marketed in the form of amber flakes made from Lac, the secretion of the family of lac-producing insects though most commonly from the g. , natural rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e. Nitrocellulose (also cellulose nitrate, flash paper) is a highly flammable compound formed by Nitrating Cellulose through exposure to g. , epoxy, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene). In Chemistry, epoxy or polyepoxide is a Thermosetting Epoxide Polymer that cures (polymerizes and crosslinks when mixed with a

In 1959, Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, PA had a team that developed the expandable polystyrene (EPS) foam.

The polystyrene foam cup

On this team was Edward J. Stoves who made the first commercial foam cup. The experimental cups were made of puffed rice glued together to form a cup to show how it would feel and look. The chemistry was then developed to make the cups commercial. Today, the cup is used throughout the world in countries desiring fast food, such as the United States, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. Freon was never used in the cups, as Stoves said: "We didn't know freon was bad for the ozone, but we knew it was not good for people so the cup never used freon to expand the beads. " However, for many years polystyrene foam

"was 'expanded' with CFC gases, probably because CFCs were cheap, easily available and easy to use. As concerns with ozone depletion emerged, producers of polystyrene foam in industrialized nations joined aerosol packagers in switching to safer gases (principally nitrogen) for propellant and expansion of polystyrene foam. "^[4]

The foam cup can be buried, and it is as stable as concrete and brick. No plastic film is required to protect the air and underground water. If it is properly incinerated at high temperatures, the only chemicals generated are water, carbon dioxide, some volatile compounds and carbon soot^[4]. If properly burned, one ton of foam cups product 0. 2 ounces of ash. Paper cups, when incinerated, produces an average of 200 pounds of ash. Polystyrene burned without enough oxygen or at lower temperatures (as in a campfire or household fireplace) can produce polycyclic aromatic compounds , carbon black and carbon monoxide in addition to styrene monomers. ^[4][5] EPS can be recycled to make park benches, flower pots and toys. Paper cups, which often have more oil in them than a foam cup, cannot be recycled if they are coated.

It is relatively easy to make the cups biodegradable. One has only to mix rice flour in the polystyrene. When the micro-organisms eat the rice, they also ingest the polystyrene. But there are three reasons to not make the cups biodegradable: 1. The time frame cannot be set. You don't want the cup disappearing on the grocer's shelf or when you have coffee in it; 2. The products of degradation are not food-grade approved; 3. If people know the material is biodegradable, they throw more cups carelessly away.

Photodegradable is superior but they have to be thrown into sunny places. If you throw the cups under a tree, they will not degrade. Manufacturers of the cups say, "If you can teach people to throw the cups into the sunlight, you can teach them to throw them into the trash. "

Cellulose-based plastics: celluloid and rayon

All Goodyear had done with vulcanization was improve the properties of a natural polymer. Vulcanization (or Vulcanisation refers to a specific curing process of Rubber involving high heat and the addition of Sulfur or other equivalent curatives The next logical step was to use a natural polymer, cellulose, as the basis for a new material.

Inventors were particularly interested in developing synthetic substitutes for those natural materials that were expensive and in short supply, since that meant a profitable market to exploit. Ivory was a particularly attractive target for a synthetic replacement. Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus,

An Englishman from Birmingham named Alexander Parkes developed a "synthetic ivory" named "pyroxlin", which he marketed under the trade name "Parkesine", and which won a bronze medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Birmingham ( ˈbɜːmɪŋəm Ber -ming-um Alexander Parkes ( December 29 1813 - June 29 1890) was a Metallurgist and Inventor from Birmingham, Parkesine is the Trademark for the first man-made Plastic. It was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1862. Expo (short for "exposition" and also known as World Fair and World's Fair) is the name given to various large public exhibitions held since the London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Parkesine was made from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and The output of the process hardened into a hard, ivory-like material that could be molded when heated. However, Parkes was not able to scale up the process reliably, and products made from Parkesine quickly warped and cracked after a short period of use.

Englishmen Daniel Spill and the American John Wesley Hyatt both took up where Parkes left off. Daniel Spill ( 11 February 1832 &ndash1887 was born in Winterbourne in Gloucestershire, England. John Wesley Hyatt ( November 28, 1837 &ndash May 10, 1920) was an American inventor Parkes had failed for lack of a proper softener, but they independently discovered that camphor would work well. } Camphor is a waxy white or transparent solid with a strong aromatic odor Spill launched his product as Xylonite in 1869, while Hyatt patented his "Celluloid" in 1870, naming it after cellulose. Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from Nitrocellulose and Camphor, plus dyes and other agents Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from Nitrocellulose and Camphor, plus dyes and other agents Rivalry between Spill's British Xylonite Company and Hyatt's American Celluloid Company led to an expensive decade-long court battle, with neither company being awarded rights, as ultimately Parkes was credited with the product's invention. Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from Nitrocellulose and Camphor, plus dyes and other agents Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from Nitrocellulose and Camphor, plus dyes and other agents As a result, both companies operated in parallel on both sides of the Atlantic.

Celluloid/Xylonite proved extremely versatile in its field of application, providing a cheap and attractive replacement for ivory, tortoiseshell, and bone, and traditional products such as billiard balls and combs were much easier to fabricate with plastics. Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Some of the items made with cellulose in the nineteenth century were beautifully designed and implemented. For example, celluloid combs made to tie up the long tresses of hair fashionable at the time are now highly-collectable jewel-like museum pieces. Such pretty trinkets were no longer only for the rich.

Hyatt was something of an industrial genius who understood what could be done with such a shapeable, or "plastic", material, and proceeded to design much of the basic industrial machinery needed to produce good-quality plastic materials in quantity. Some of Hyatt's first products were dental pieces, and sets of false teeth built around celluloid proved cheaper than existing rubber dentures. However, celluloid dentures tended to soften when hot, making tea drinking tricky, and the camphor taste tended to be difficult to suppress.

Celluloid's real breakthrough products were waterproof shirt collars, cuffs, and the false shirtfronts known as "dickies", whose unmanageable nature later became a stock joke in silent-movie comedies. They did not wilt and did not stain easily, and Hyatt sold them by trainloads. Corsets made with celluloid stays also proved popular, since perspiration did not rust the stays, as it would if they had been made of metal.

Celluloid could also be used in entirely new applications. Hyatt figured out how to fabricate the material in a strip format for movie film. By the year 1900, movie film was a major market for celluloid.

However, celluloid still tended to yellow and crack over time, and it had another more dangerous defect: it burned very easily and spectacularly, unsurprising given that mixtures of nitric acid and cellulose are also used to synthesize smokeless powder. Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of Propellants used in Firearms and Artillery which produce negligible smoke when fired unlike the older

Ping-pong balls, one of the few products still made with celluloid, sizzle and burn if set on fire, and Hyatt liked to tell stories about celluloid billiard balls exploding when struck very hard. These stories might have had a basis in fact, since the billiard balls were often celluloid covered with paints based on another, even more flammable, nitrocellulose product known as "collodion". Collodion is a solution of Nitrocellulose in ether or Acetone, sometimes with the addition of Alcohols Its generic name is pyroxylin solution If the balls had been imperfectly manufactured, the paints might have acted as primer to set the rest of the ball off with a bang.

Cellulose was also used to produce cloth. While the men who developed celluloid were interested in replacing ivory, those who developed the new fibers were interested in replacing another expensive material, silk. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons

In 1884, a French chemist, the Comte de Chardonnay, introduced a cellulose-based fabric that became known as "Chardonnay silk". It was an attractive cloth, but like celluloid it was very flammable, a property completely unacceptable in clothing. After some ghastly accidents, Chardonnay silk was taken off the market.

In 1894, three British inventors, Charles Cross, Edward Bevan, and Clayton Beadle, patented a new "artificial silk" or "art silk" that was much safer. The three men sold the rights for the new fabric to the French Courtauld company, a major manufacturer of silk, which put it into production in 1905, using cellulose from wood pulp as the "feedstock" material.

Art silk, technically known as Cellulose Acetate, became well known under the trade name "rayon", and was produced in great quantities through the 1930s, when it was supplanted by better artificial fabrics. Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulosic Fiber. Rayon is produced from naturally occurring Polymers and therefore it is not a truly It still remains in production today, often in blends with other natural and artificial fibers. It is cheap and feels smooth on the skin, though it is weak when wet and creases easily. It could also be produced in a transparent sheet form known as "cellophane". Cellophane is a thin transparent sheet made of regenerated Cellulose. Cellulose Acetate became the standard substrate for movie and camera film, instead of its very flammable predecessor.

Bakelite (phenolic)

The limitations of cellulose led to the next major advance, known as "phenolic" or "phenol-formaldehyde" plastics. Phenol, is a toxic colourless Crystalline Solid with a sweet tarry odor commonly referred to as a "hospital smell" A chemist named Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American living in New York state, was searching for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. Leo Hendrik Baekeland ( Sint-Martens-Latem (near Ghent) November 14, 1863 - February 23, 1944) was a Belgian Belgian Americans are Citizens of the United States who are of Belgian ancestry New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Baekeland found that mixtures of phenol (C₆H₅OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass when mixed together and heated, and the mass became extremely hard if allowed to cool. Phenol, is a toxic colourless Crystalline Solid with a sweet tarry odor commonly referred to as a "hospital smell" Formaldehyde is a Chemical compound with the formula H2CO It is the simplest Aldehyde —an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl He continued his investigations and found that the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create "composite" materials with different properties. Most of these compositions were strong and fire resistant. The only problem was that the material tended to foam during synthesis, and the resulting product was of unacceptable quality.

Baekeland built pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product. He publicly announced his discovery in 1912, naming it bakelite. Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting Bakelite (ˈbеɪkɨlaɪt is a material based on the thermosetting Phenol formaldehyde resin polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride developed in 1907–1909 by It was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, finally coming into widespread use in consumer goods in the 1920s. When the Bakelite patent expired in 1930, the Catalin Corporation acquired the patent and began manufacturing Catalin plastic using a different process that allowed a wider range of coloring. Catalin is a Brand name for a Thermosetting plastic popular in the 1930s

Bakelite was the first true plastic. It was a purely synthetic material, not based on any material or even molecule found in nature. It was also the first thermosetting plastic. Conventional thermoplastics can be molded and then melted again, but thermoset plastics form bonds between polymers strands when cured, creating a tangled matrix that cannot be undone without destroying the plastic. Thermosetting plastics thermosets are Polymer materials that irreversibly cure form Thermoset plastics are tough and temperature resistant.

Bakelite was cheap, strong, and durable. It was molded into thousands of forms, such as radios, telephones, clocks, and billiard balls. The U. S. government even considered making one-cent coins out of it when World War II caused a copper shortage.

Phenolic plastics have been largely replaced by cheaper and less brittle plastics, but they are still used in applications requiring its insulating and heat-resistant properties. For example, some electronic circuit boards are made of sheets of paper or cloth impregnated with phenolic resin. A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect Electronic components using conductive pathways or traces

Phenolic sheets, rods and tubes are produced in a wide variety of grades under various brand names. The most common grades of industrial phenolic are Canvas, Linen and Paper.

Polystyrene and PVC

Plastic piping and firestops being installed at Nortown Casitas, North York (Now Toronto), Ontario, Canada. For other uses see Pipe. Within Industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey Fluids ( Liquids and A firestop is a Passive fire protection System of various components used to seal openings and joints in fire-resistance rated wall Toronto (təˈrɒntoʊ colloquially pronounced or) is the largest city in Canada and is the provincial capital of Ontario Ontario (ɒnˈtɛrioʊ is a province located in the central part of Canada, the largest by population and second largest after Quebec Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Certain plastic pipes can be used in some noncombustible buildings, provided they are firestopped properly and that the flame spread ratings comply with the local building code. A building code, or building control, is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for constructed objects such as Buildings and Nonbuilding

After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Among the earliest examples in the wave of new plastics were "polystyrene" (PS) and "polyvinyl chloride" (PVC), developed by IG Farben of Germany. Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG, "syndicate of dyestuff corporations" and also called I

Polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits and similar knickknacks. It would also be the basis for one of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name "styrene foam" or "Styrofoam". Styrofoam is a trademark for polystyrene Thermal insulation, a material manufactured by Dow Chemical Company. Foam plastics can be synthesized in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s "High Impact" styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance of toy figurines and novelties.

PVC has side chains incorporating chlorine atoms, which form strong bonds. PVC in its normal form is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, and is now used for making plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. Plumbing, from the Latin plumbum for Lead, is the skilled trade of working with pipes, tubing and Plumbing fixtures for PVC can also be softened with chemical processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and raingear.

Nylon

Main article: Nylon

The real star of the plastics industry in the 1930s was "polyamide" (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Overview Nylon is a Thermoplastic silky material first used commercially in a nylon- Bristled Toothbrush (1938 followed more famously by A polyamide is a Polymer containing Monomers of Amides joined by Peptide bonds They can occur both naturally examples being Proteins Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by Du Pont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City. E I du Pont de Nemours and Company (,) is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a Gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée The 1939-40 New York World's Fair, Flushing Meadows-Corona Park (also the location of the 1964-1965 New York World's Fair) was one of the largest The City of New York

In 1927, Du Pont had begun a secret development project designated "Fiber66", under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Wallace Hume Carothers ( April 27, 1896 &ndash April 29, 1937) was an American chemist inventor and the leader of Organic chemistry Elmer Keiser Bolton ( June 23, 1886 - July 30, 1968) was an American chemist and research director for DuPont, notable for his role Carothers had been hired to perform pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials.

His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. The toothbrush is an instrument consisting of a small Brush on a handle used to clean Teeth through Tooth brushing. However, Du Pont's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons A stocking, sometimes referred to as hose is a close-fitting variously elastic garment covering the Foot and lower part of the Leg. Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide6. 6 and 4. 6, as well as polyesters.

General condensation polymerization reaction for nylon

It took Du Pont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop the industrial processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania". Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the USA entered World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The production capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just "nylons", for American women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, Du Pont went back to selling nylon to the public, engaging in another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so called "nylon riots". The nylon riots refer to a series of disturbances at American stores created by a Nylon Stocking shortage

Subsequently polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed based on monomers which are ring compounds, e. g. caprolactam. nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation polymerisation

Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear resistant, particularly if oil-impregnated, and so is used to build gears, bearings, bushings, and because of good heat-resistance, increasingly for under-the-hood applications in cars, and other mechanical parts. A bearing is a device to permit constrained relative motion between two parts typically rotation or linear movement A mechanical bushing is a cylindrical lining designed to reduce friction and wear inside a hole or constrict and restrain motion of mechanical parts

Synthetic rubber

Main article: Synthetic rubber

A polymer that was critical to the war effort was "synthetic rubber", which was produced in a variety of forms. Elastomer Synthetic rubber is any type of artificially made Polymer material which acts as an Elastomer. Synthetic rubbers are not plastics. Synthetic rubbers are elastic materials.

The first synthetic rubber polymer was obtained by Lebedev in 1910. Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev ( July 25, 1874 &ndash May 1, 1934) was a Russian| / Soviet chemist and the inventor of one Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Practical synthetic rubber grew out of studies published in 1930 written independently by American Wallace Carothers, Russian scientist Lebedev and the German scientist Hermann Staudinger. Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Wallace Hume Carothers ( April 27, 1896 &ndash April 29, 1937) was an American chemist inventor and the leader of Organic chemistry Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev ( July 25, 1874 &ndash May 1, 1934) was a Russian| / Soviet chemist and the inventor of one Hermann Staudinger ( March 23, 1881 &ndash September 8, 1965) was a German chemist who demonstrated the existence of Macromolecules These studies led in 1931 to one of the first successful synthetic rubbers, known as "neoprene", which was developed at DuPont under the direction of E.K. Bolton. Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic Rubbers that are produced by Polymerization of Chloroprene. E I du Pont de Nemours and Company (,) is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a Gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée Elmer Keiser Bolton ( June 23, 1886 - July 30, 1968) was an American chemist and research director for DuPont, notable for his role Neoprene is highly resistant to heat and chemicals such as oil and gasoline, and is used in fuel hoses and as an insulating material in machinery. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit

In 1935, German chemists synthesized the first of a series of synthetic rubbers known as "Buna rubbers". These were "copolymers", meaning that their polymers were made up from not one but two monomers, in alternating sequence. One such Buna rubber, known as "GR-S" (Government Rubber Styrene), is a copolymer of butadiene and styrene, became the basis for U. S. synthetic rubber production during World War II.

Worldwide natural rubber supplies were limited and by mid-1942 most of the rubber-producing regions were under Japanese control. Military trucks needed rubber for tires, and rubber was used in almost every other war machine. The U. S. government launched a major (and largely secret) effort to develop and refine synthetic rubber. A principal scientist involved with the effort was Edward Robbins. Edward Hutchinson Robbins ( February 9, 1758 - December 17, 1837) served as the Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts from 1802

By 1944 a total of 50 factories were manufacturing it, pouring out a volume of the material twice that of the world's natural rubber production before the beginning of the war.

After the war, natural rubber plantations no longer had a stranglehold on rubber supplies, particularly after chemists learned to synthesize isoprene. GR-S remains the primary synthetic rubber for the manufacture of tires.

Synthetic rubber would also play an important part in the space race and nuclear arms race. The Space Race was a competition of space exploration between the Soviet Union and the United States, which lasted roughly from 1957 to 1975 The nuclear Arms race was a competition for supremacy in Nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective Solid rockets used during World War II used nitrocellulose explosives for propellants, but it was impractical and dangerous to make such rockets very big. A solid rocket or a solid-fuel rocket is a Rocket with a motor that uses solid propellants ( Fuel / Oxidizer) Nitrocellulose (also cellulose nitrate, flash paper) is a highly flammable compound formed by Nitrating Cellulose through exposure to

During the war, California Institute of Technology (Caltech) researchers came up with a new solid fuel, based on asphalt fuel mixed with an oxidizer, such as potassium or ammonium perchlorate, plus aluminium powder, which burns very hot. The California Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Caltech) is a private, Coeducational research university located in Pasadena Asphalt ( is a sticky black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude Petroleums and in some natural deposits sometimes termed asphaltum An oxidizing agent or oxidising agent (also called an oxidant, oxidizer or oxidiser) can be defined as either a Chemical compound Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Ammonium perchlorate (AP is a Chemical compound with the formula N[[Hydrogen H]]4 Cl[[Oxygen O]]4 WikipediaNaming This new solid fuel burned more slowly and evenly than nitrocellulose explosives, and was much less dangerous to store and use, though it tended to flow slowly out of the rocket in storage and the rockets using it had to be stockpiled nose down.

After the war, the Caltech researchers began to investigate the use of synthetic rubbers instead of asphalt as the fuel in the mixture. By the mid-1950s, large missiles were being built using solid fuels based on synthetic rubber, mixed with ammonium perchlorate and high proportions of aluminium powder. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive Ammonium perchlorate (AP is a Chemical compound with the formula N[[Hydrogen H]]4 Cl[[Oxygen O]]4 WikipediaNaming Such solid fuels could be cast into large, uniform blocks that had no cracks or other defects that would cause nonuniform burning. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.

Plastics explosion: acrylic, polyethylene, etc.

Other plastics emerged in the prewar period, though some would not come into widespread use until after the war.

By 1936, American, British, and German companies were producing Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), better known as acrylic glass. Poly(methyl methacrylate ( PMMA) or poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate is a Thermoplastic and transparent Plastic. Although acrylics are now well known for their use in paints and synthetic fibers, such as fake furs, in their bulk form they are actually very hard and more transparent than glass, and are sold as glass replacements under trade names such as Plexiglas and Lucite. Plexiglas was used to build aircraft canopies during the war, and it is also now used as a marble replacement for countertops.

Another important plastic, Polyethylene (PE), sometimes known as polythene, was discovered in 1933 by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett at the British industrial giant Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI). Polyethylene or polythene ( IUPAC name poly(ethene) is a Thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (notably the Eric Fawcett ( August 23, 1927 &ndash September 2, 2000) was a professor of Physics at the University of Toronto for 23 This material evolved into two forms, low density polyethylene (LDPE), and high density polyethylene (HDPE). Properties LDPE is defined by a density range of 0910 - 0940 g/cm³ High-Density Polyethylene ( HDPE) or PolyEthylene High-Density ( PEHD) is a Polyethylene Thermoplastic made from Petroleum

PEs are cheap, flexible, durable, and chemically resistant. LDPE is used to make films and packaging materials, while HDPE is used for containers, plumbing, and automotive fittings. Plumbing, from the Latin plumbum for Lead, is the skilled trade of working with pipes, tubing and Plumbing fixtures for While PE has low resistance to chemical attack, it was found later that a PE container could be made much more robust by exposing it to fluorine gas, which modified the surface layer of the container into the much tougher polyfluoroethylene. In Chemistry, poly(tetrafluoroethene or poly(tetrafluoroethylene ( PTFE) is a synthetic Fluoropolymer which finds numerous applications

Polyethylene would lead after the war to an improved material, Polypropylene (PP), which was discovered in the early 1950s by Giulio Natta. Polypropylene or polypropene ( PP) is a Thermoplastic Polymer, made by the Chemical industry and used in a wide variety of applications Giulio Natta ( February 26 1903, Imperia - Bergamo, 2 May 1979) was an Italian Chemist, who won It is common in modern science and technology that the growth of the general body of knowledge can lead to the same inventions in different places at about the same time, but polypropylene was an extreme case of this phenomenon, being separately invented about nine times. The ensuing litigation was not resolved until 1989.

Polypropylene managed to survive the legal process and two American chemists working for Phillips Petroleum, J. Paul Hogan and Robert Banks, are now generally credited as the "official" inventors of the material. Phillips Petroleum Company was founded in 1917 by LE Phillips and Frank Phillips, of Bartlesville, Oklahoma. John Paul Hogan (born August 7, 1919) is an American research chemist Robert L Banks ( November 24, 1921 – January 3. 1989 was an American Chemist. Polypropylene is similar to its ancestor, polyethylene, and shares polyethylene's low cost, but it is much more robust. It is used in everything from plastic bottles to carpets to plastic furniture, and is very heavily used in automobiles.

Polyurethane (PU) was invented by Friedrich Bayer & Company in 1937, and would come into use after the war, in blown form for mattresses, furniture padding, and thermal insulation. A polyurethane, commonly abbreviated PU, is any Polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by urethane links For other uses see Bayer (disambiguation or Beyer or Buyer. Bayer AG (German ˈbaɪə () is a German It is also one of the components (in non-blown form) of the fiber spandex. Spandex or elastane is a Synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity.

In 1939, IG Farben filed a patent for polyepoxide or epoxy. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. IG Farben (short for Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG, "syndicate of dyestuff corporations" and also called I In Chemistry, epoxy or polyepoxide is a Thermosetting Epoxide Polymer that cures (polymerizes and crosslinks when mixed with a Epoxies are a class of thermoset plastic that form cross-links and cure when a catalyzing agent, or hardener, is added. After the war they would come into wide use for coatings, adhesives, and composite materials. Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together

Composites using epoxy as a matrix include glass-reinforced plastic, where the structural element is glass fiber, and carbon-epoxy composites, in which the structural element is carbon fiber. Glass-reinforced plastic ( GRP) is a Composite material or Fiber-reinforced plastic made of a Plastic reinforced by fine fibers Fiberglass (also called fibreglass and glass fibre see Spelling differences) is material made from extremely fine Fibers of Glass. Fiberglass is now often used to build sport boats, and carbon-epoxy composites are an increasingly important structural element in aircraft, as they are lightweight, strong, and heat resistant.

Two chemists named Rex Whinfield and James Dickson, working at a small English company with the quaint name of the "Calico Printer's Association" in Manchester, developed polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) in 1941, and it would be used for synthetic fibers in the postwar era, with names such as polyester, dacron, and terylene. Sir James Robert Dickson, KCMG ( 30 November 1832 &ndash 10 January 1901) was an Australian politician and Businessman Uses PET can be semi-rigid to rigid depending on its thickness and is very lightweight Uses PET can be semi-rigid to rigid depending on its thickness and is very lightweight

PET is less gas-permeable than other low-cost plastics and so is a popular material for making bottles for Coca-Cola and other carbonated drinks, since carbonation tends to attack other plastics, and for acidic drinks such as fruit or vegetable juices. Coca-Cola is a carbonated Soft drink sold in stores restaurants and Vending machines in more than 200 countries PET is also strong and abrasion resistant, and is used for making mechanical parts, food trays, and other items that have to endure abuse. PET films are used as a base for recording tape. Biaxially-oriented Polyethylene terephthalate (boPET Polyester film is used for its high Tensile strength, Chemical and dimensional Stability

One of the most impressive plastics used in the war, and a top secret, was polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), better known as Teflon, which could be deposited on metal surfaces as a scratch-proof and corrosion-resistant, low-friction protective coating. In Chemistry, poly(tetrafluoroethene or poly(tetrafluoroethylene ( PTFE) is a synthetic Fluoropolymer which finds numerous applications The polyfluoroethylene surface layer created by exposing a polyethylene container to fluorine gas is very similar to Teflon.

A Du Pont chemist named Roy Plunkett discovered Teflon by accident in 1938. Roy J Plunkett ( 1910-06-26 - 1994-05-12 In 1936 he was hired as a research chemist by E During the war, it was used in gaseous-diffusion processes to refine uranium for the atomic bomb, as the process was highly corrosive. By the early 1960s, Teflon adhesion-resistant frying pans were in demand.

Teflon was later used to synthesize the breathable fabric Gore-Tex, which can be used to manufacture wet weather clothing that is able to "breathe". Its structure allows water vapour molecules to pass, while not permitting water as liquid to enter. Gore-Tex is also used for surgical applications such as garments and implants; Teflon strand is used to make dental floss; and Teflon mixed with fluorine compounds is used to make decoy flares dropped by aircraft to distract heat-seeking missiles. Dental floss is either a bundle of thin Nylon filaments or a plastic ( teflon or polyethylene) ribbon used to remove Food and Dental

After the war, the new plastics that had been developed entered the consumer mainstream in a flood. New manufacturing were developed, using various forming, molding, casting, and extrusion processes, to churn out plastic products in vast quantities. Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile American consumers enthusiastically adopted the endless range of colorful, cheap, and durable plastic gimmicks being produced for new suburban home life.

One of the most visible parts of this plastics invasion was Earl Tupper's Tupperware, a complete line of sealable polyethylene food containers that Tupper cleverly promoted through a network of housewives who sold Tupperware as a means of bringing in some money. Earl Silas Tupper ( July 28, 1907 &ndash October 5, 1983) was the inventor of Tupperware, an airtight Plastic container for Tupperware is the brand name of a home products line that includes preparation storage and serving products for the kitchen and home which debuted in 1946 The Tupperware line of products was well thought out and highly effective, greatly reducing spoilage of foods in storage. Thin-film plastic wrap that could be purchased in rolls also helped keep food fresh. Plastic wrap is a thin plastic film typically used for sealing Food items in containers to keep them fresh

Another prominent element in 1950s homes was Formica, a plastic laminate that was used to surface furniture and cabinetry. Formica is a brand of Composite materials manufactured by the Formica Corporation based in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. A laminate is a material constructed by uniting two or more layers of material together Formica was durable and attractive. It was particularly useful in kitchens, as it did not absorb, and could be easily cleaned of stains from food preparation, such as blood or grease. With Formica, a very attractive and well-built table could be built using low-cost and lightweight plywood with Formica covering, rather than expensive and heavy hardwoods like oak or mahogany.

Composite materials like fiberglass came into use for building boats and, in some cases, cars. Polyurethane foam was used to fill mattresses, and Styrofoam was used to line ice coolers and make float toys.

Plastics continue to be improved. General Electric introduced Lexan, a high-impact polycarbonate plastic, in the 1970s. For similar products offered by other companies see Polycarbonates Lexan ( LEXAN) is a registered trademark for SABIC Innovative Du Pont developed Kevlar, an extremely strong synthetic fiber that was best known for its use in ballistic rated clothing and combat helmets. Kevlar is the registered Trademark for a light strong para-aramid Synthetic fiber, related to other Aramids such as Nomex and Kevlar was so impressive that its manufacturer, DuPont, deemed it necessary to release an official statement denying alien involvement. ^[6]

Negative health effects

Some plastics have been associated with negative health effects.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) contains numerous toxic chemicals called adipates and phthalates ("plasticizers"), which are used to soften brittle PVC into a more flexible form. Adipate (-OOC-(CH24-COO- is the ionized form of Adipic acid. As Food additives adipates are used as Acidity Phthalates, or phthalate esters, are esters of Phthalic acid and are mainly used as Plasticizers (substances added to Plastics to increase their PVC is commonly used to package foods and liquids, ubiquitous in children's toys and teethers, plumbing and building materials, and in everything from cosmetics to shower curtains. Traces of these chemicals can leach out of PVC when it comes into contact with food. The World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized the chemical used to make PVC, vinyl chloride, as a known human carcinogen^[7]. Vinyl chloride is the Organic compound with the formula CH2CHCl The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation The European Union has banned the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), the most widely used plasticizer in PVC, and in children's toys. Bis(2-ethylhexylphthalate, commonly abbreviated DEHP is an Organic compound with the formula C6H4(CO2C8H172

Polystyrene (PS) is one of the toxins the USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) monitors in America's drinking water. Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene Prior to the ban on the use of CFCs in extrusion of polystyrene (and general use, except in life-critical fire suppression systems; see Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer; however, non-CFCs are currently used in the extrusion process. The haloalkanes (also known as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of Chemical compounds consisting of Alkanes such as Methane For other similarly-named agreements see Montreal Convention (disambiguation. The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were worked out by the British physicist Sidney Chapman in 1930 Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers interfere with hormone functions. It's a possible human carcinogen^[7].

Polycarbonates are a particular group of thermoplastic polymers, whose primary building block is bisphenol A (BPA), a hormone disrupter that releases into food and liquid^[7] and acts like estrogen. A thermoplastic is a Plastic that Melts to a liquid when heated and freezes to a Brittle, very Glassy state when cooled sufficiently A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds Bisphenol A, commonly abbreviated as BPA, is an Organic compound with two Phenol Functional groups It is a difunctional building block of Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA (leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles) can increase body weight of lab animals' offspring, as well as impact hormone levels. A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.

The environment

Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly. Chemical decomposition or analysis is the separation of a Chemical compound into elements or smaller compounds In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism Also, the manufacturing of plastics often creates large quantities of chemical pollutants.

By 1995, plastic recycling programs were common in the United States and elsewhere. Plastic recycling is the process of Recovering scrap or waste Plastics and reprocessing the material into useful products sometimes completely different from their Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, though the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock state.

To assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the Society of the Plastics Industry devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. Founded in 1937 The Society of the Plastics Industry Inc is the trade association representing one of the largest manufacturing industries in the United States A plastic container using this scheme is marked with a triangle of three "chasing arrows", which encloses a number giving the plastic type:

1. PET (PETE), polyethylene terephthalate: Commonly found on 2-liter soft drink bottles, cooking oil bottles, peanut butter jars. The symbols in the table below belong to the SPI resin identification coding system, developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry in 1988 Uses PET can be semi-rigid to rigid depending on its thickness and is very lightweight Soft drink is a beverage that does not contain Alcohol. Carbonated soft drinks are commonly known as soda soda pop pop, or
2. HDPE, high-density polyethylene: Commonly found on detergent bottles, milk jugs. High-Density Polyethylene ( HDPE) or PolyEthylene High-Density ( PEHD) is a Polyethylene Thermoplastic made from Petroleum
3. PVC, polyvinyl chloride: Commonly found on plastic pipes, outdoor furniture, shrink-wrap, water bottles, salad dressing and liquid detergent containers.
4. LDPE, low-density polyethylene: Commonly found on dry-cleaning bags, produce bags, trash can liners, food storage containers. Properties LDPE is defined by a density range of 0910 - 0940 g/cm³
5. PP, polypropylene: Commonly found on bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers. Polypropylene or polypropene ( PP) is a Thermoplastic Polymer, made by the Chemical industry and used in a wide variety of applications
6. PS, polystyrene: Commonly found on "packing peanuts", cups, plastic tableware, meat trays, take-away food clamshell containers
7. OTHER, other: This plastic category, as its name of "other" implies, is any plastic other than the named #1–#6, Commonly found on certain kinds of food containers, Tupperware, and Nalgene bottles. Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene Tupperware is the brand name of a home products line that includes preparation storage and serving products for the kitchen and home which debuted in 1946 Nalgene (sometimes referred to as Nalge Nunc International) is a distributor and manufacturer of Plastic laboratory containers that has diversified into the field

Unfortunately, recycling plastics has proven difficult. The biggest problem with plastic recycling is that it is difficult to automate the sorting of plastic waste, and so it is labor intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code, though common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. The symbols in the table below belong to the SPI resin identification coding system, developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry in 1988 Other recyclable materials, such as metals, are easier to process mechanically. However, new mechanical sorting processes are being utilized to increase plastic recycling capacity and efficiency.

While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them relatively easy to sort out, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and colors of plastics. In a case like this, the resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item is discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of Active Disassembly, which may result in more consumer product components being re-used or recycled. Active Disassembly (AD is a developing technology which is associated with the term Active Disassembly using Smart Materials (ADSM Outline Smart materials such Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. For example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene These unrecyclable wastes can be disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-energy plants. For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as Incineration is a waste treatment technology that involves the Combustion of organic materials and/or substances Incineration is a waste treatment technology that involves the Combustion of organic materials and/or substances

Bioplastics and biodegradable plastics

Research has been done on biodegradable plastics that break down with exposure to sunlight (e. Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms g. ultra-violet radiation), water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion and some instances rodent pest or insect attack are also included as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation. Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as Air, Water and Soil; the destruction It is clear some of these modes of degradation will only work if the plastic is exposed at the surface, while other modes will only be effective if certain conditions are found in landfill or composting systems. Starch powder has been mixed with plastic as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Some researchers have actually genetically engineered bacteria that synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such as Biopol, is expensive at present. Polyhydroxybutyrate ( PHB) is a polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA a Polymer belonging to the Polyesters class that was first isolated and characterized The German chemical company BASF makes Ecoflex, a fully biodegradable polyester for food packaging applications. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. BASF SE () is a German chemical company and the largest chemical company in the world Polyester is a category of Polymers which contain the Ester Functional group in their main chain

A potential disadvantage of biodegradable plastics is that the carbon that is locked up in them is released into the atmosphere as a greenhouse gas carbon dioxide when they degrade, though if they are made from natural materials, such as vegetable crop derivatives or animal products, there is no net gain in carbon dioxide emissions, although concern will be for a worse greenhouse gas, methane release. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Of course, incinerating non-biodegradable plastics will release carbon dioxide as well, while disposing of it in landfills will release methane when the plastic does eventually break down.

So far, these plastics have proven too costly and limited for general use, and critics have pointed out that the only real problem they address is roadside litter, which is regarded as a secondary issue. Litter is Waste disposed in the wrong place by Unlawful human action and can vary in size of incident occurrence or items When such plastic materials are dumped into landfills, they can become "mummified" and persist for decades even if they are supposed to be biodegradable. For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as

There have been some success stories. The Courtauld concern, the original producer of rayon, came up with a revised process for the material in the mid-1980s to produce "Tencel". Lyocell is a fiber made from Wood pulp Cellulose. It was first manufactured in 1987 by Courtaulds Fibres UK at their pilot plant S25 Tencel has many superior properties over rayon, but is still produced from "biomass" feedstocks, and its manufacture is extraordinarily clean by the standards of plastic production. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production

Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana have been working on developing biodegradable resins, sheets and films made with zein (corn protein). Zein is a class of Prolamine Protein found in Maize. It is usually manufactured as a powder from Corn gluten meal. [1]PDF (96. 7 KiB)

Recently, however, a new type of biodegradable resin has made its debut in the United States, called Plastarch Material (PSM). A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. Plastarch Material ( PSM) is a Biodegradable, Thermoplastic resin It is heat, water, and oil resistant and sees a 70% degradation in 90 days. Biodegradable plastics based on polylactic acid (once derived from dairy products, now from cereal crops such as maize) have entered the marketplace, for instance as polylactates as disposable sandwich packs. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica A* Disposable Table cloth Cans, Bottles jars Cartons Wrappers and other Food packaging are largely Recyclable

An alternative to starch-based resins are additives such as Bio-Batch an additive that allows the manufacturers to make PE, PS, PP, PET, and PVC totally biodegradable in landfills where 94. Biodegradable plastics are Plastics that will Decompose in the natural environment. 8% of most plastics end up, according to the EPA's latest MSW report located under "Municipal Solid Waste in the United States": 2003 Data Tables.

It is also possible that bacteria will eventually develop the ability to degrade plastics. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have This has already happened with nylon: two types of nylon eating bacteria, Flavobacteria and Pseudomonas, were found in 1975 to possess enzymes (nylonase) capable of breaking down nylon. Nylon-eating bacteria are a strain of Flavobacterium that is capable of digesting certain byproducts of Nylon 6 manufacture The class Flavobacteria is composed of a single order of environmental Bacteria. Pseudomonas is a Genus of gamma Proteobacteria, belonging to the larger family of Pseudomonads Recently 16S rRNA sequence Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Nylon-eating bacteria are a strain of Flavobacterium that is capable of digesting certain byproducts of Nylon 6 manufacture While not a solution to the disposal problem, it is likely that bacteria will evolve the ability to use other synthetic plastics as well. In 2008, a 16-year-old boy reportedly isolated two plastic-consuming bacteria. ^[8]

The latter possibility was in fact the subject of a cautionary novel by Kit Pedler and Gerry Davis (screenwriter), the creators of the Cybermen, re-using the plot of the first episode of their Doomwatch series. Dr Christopher Magnus Howard Pedler ( 1927 - 27 May 1981) was a British medical scientist Science fiction Author and writer on science Gerry Davis ( 23 February 1930 - 31 August 1991) was a British Television writer best known for his contributions to the The Cybermen are a Fictional race of Cyborgs who are amongst the most persistent enemies of the Doctor in the British Science fiction television Doomwatch is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC, which ran on BBC One between 1970 and 1972 The novel, "Mutant 59: The Plastic Eater", written in 1971, is the story of what could happen if a bacterium were to evolve—or be artificially cultured—to eat plastics, and be let loose in a major city. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status

Bioplastics

Main article: Bioplastic

Some plastics can be obtained from biomass, including:

• from pea starch film with trigger biodegradation properties for agricultural applications (TRIGGER). For information on plastics which are biodegradable see Biodegradable plastic. A pea (inaccurately called a '''sweet pea''' by food distubutors is most commonly the small spherical Seed or the seed-pod of the Legume Pisum Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products ^[9]
• from biopetroleum ^[10].

Price, environment, and the future

The biggest threat to the conventional plastics industry is most likely to be environmental concerns, including the release of toxic pollutants, greenhouse gas, litter, biodegradable and non-biodegrable landfill impact as a result of the production and disposal of petroleum and petroleum-based plastics. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Biodegradable plastics are Plastics that will Decompose in the natural environment. For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as Of particular concern has been the recent accumulation of enormous quantities of plastic trash in ocean gyres, particularly the North Pacific Gyre, now known informally as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch or the Pacific Trash Vortex. A gyre is any manner of swirling Vortex. It is often used to describe large-scale Wind or Ocean currents. A gyre is any manner of swirling Vortex. It is often used to describe large-scale Wind or Ocean currents.

For decades one of the great appeals of plastics has been their low price. Yet in recent years the cost of plastics has been rising dramatically. A major cause is the sharply rising cost of petroleum, the raw material that is chemically altered to form commercial plastics. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit

With some observers suggesting that future oil reserves are uncertain, the price of petroleum may increase further. Therefore, alternatives are being sought. Oil shale and tar oil are alternatives for plastic production but are expensive. Scientists are seeking cheaper and better alternatives to petroleum-based plastics, and many candidates are in laboratories all over the world. One promising alternative may be fructose ^[11].

Common plastics and uses

Polypropylene (PP) 

Food containers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers). Polypropylene or polypropene ( PP) is a Thermoplastic Polymer, made by the Chemical industry and used in a wide variety of applications

Polystyrene (PS) 

Packaging foam, food containers, disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and cassette boxes. Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene

High impact polystyrene (HIPS) 

fridge liners, food packaging, vending cups. Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 

Electronic equipment cases (e. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS, ( Chemical formula (C8H8· C4H6·C3H3Nn is g. , computer monitors, printers, keyboards).

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 

carbonated drinks bottles, jars, plastic film, microwavable packaging. Uses PET can be semi-rigid to rigid depending on its thickness and is very lightweight

Polyester (PES) 

Fibers, textiles. Polyester is a category of Polymers which contain the Ester Functional group in their main chain Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread. A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn.

Polyamides (PA) (Nylons) 

Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, under-the-hood car engine mouldings. A polyamide is a Polymer containing Monomers of Amides joined by Peptide bonds They can occur both naturally examples being Proteins Overview Nylon is a Thermoplastic silky material first used commercially in a nylon- Bristled Toothbrush (1938 followed more famously by Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread.

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) 

Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window frames, flooring.

Polyurethanes (PU) 

cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings, printing rollers. A polyurethane, commonly abbreviated PU, is any Polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by urethane links (Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, for instance the most commonly used plastic found in cars).

Polycarbonate (PC) 

Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, lenses. A Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an Optical disc used to store digital data, originally developed for storing digital audio Glasses, also called eyeglasses or spectacles, are frames bearing lenses worn in front of the Eyes normally for vision correction,

Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran) 

Food packaging. Polyvinylidene chloride is a Polymer derived from Vinylidene chloride. Saran is the Trade name for a number of Polymers made from Vinylidene chloride (especially Polyvinylidene chloride or PVDC) along

Polyethylene (PE) 

Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags, plastic bottles. Polyethylene or polythene ( IUPAC name poly(ethene) is a Thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (notably the

Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) 

A blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic.  :Car Interior and exterior parts

Special-purpose plastics

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) 

contact lenses, glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world, e. Poly(methyl methacrylate ( PMMA) or poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate is a Thermoplastic and transparent Plastic. g. , Perspex, Oroglas, Plexiglas) fluorescent light diffusers, rear light covers for vehicles.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (trade name Teflon) 

Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides. In Chemistry, poly(tetrafluoroethene or poly(tetrafluoroethylene ( PTFE) is a synthetic Fluoropolymer which finds numerous applications

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) (Polyetherketone)

Strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic, biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications, aerospace mouldings. Chemical resistance PEEK also exhibits good chemical resistance in many environments including Alkalis Chemical resistance PEEK also exhibits good chemical resistance in many environments including Alkalis Biocompatibility is related to the behavior of Biomaterials and in that it is a peculiar word because it would seem that are at least two opposing uses of the same term One of the most expensive commercial polymers.

Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem) 

A high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize. Polyetherimide (PEI is an amorphous amber-to-transparent Thermoplastic with similar characteristics to PEEK 's Prince Edward Island (ˌprɪns ˌɛdwɚd ˈaɪlɨnd ( PEI or P

Phenolics (PF) or (phenol formaldehydes) 

high modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fire resistant polymer. In Organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of Chemical compounds consisting of a Hydroxyl group (- In Solid mechanics, Young's modulus (E is a measure of the Stiffness of an isotropic elastic material Used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products (e. g. "Formica"), thermally insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the familiar trade name Bakelite, that can be moulded by heat and pressure when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast as foam, e. g. "Oasis". Problems include the probability of mouldings naturally being dark colours (red, green, brown), and as thermoset difficult to recycle. Recycling involves processing used materials into new products in order to prevent the waste of potentially useful materials reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials reduce

Urea-formaldehyde (UF) 

one of the aminoplasts and used as multi-colorable alternative to Phenolics. Urea-formaldehyde, also known as urea-methanal, named so for its common synthesis pathway and overall structure is a transparent thermosetting Resin The University of Florida ( Florida or UF) is a public land-grant, sea-grant, space-grant major Research In Organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of Chemical compounds consisting of a Hydroxyl group (- Used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings.

Melamine formaldehyde (MF) 

one of the aminoplasts, and used a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics, for instance in mouldings (e. Melamine resin or melamine formaldehyde (also shortened to melamine) is a hard Thermosetting plastic material made from Melamine and In Organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of Chemical compounds consisting of a Hydroxyl group (- g. break-resistance alternatives to ceramic cups, plates and bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer of the paper laminates (e. g. "Formica").

Polylactic acid 

a biodegradable, thermoplastic, found converted into a variety of aliphatic polyesters derived from lactic acid which in turn can be made by fermentation of various agricultural products such as corn starch, once made from diary products. Polylactic acid or polylactide ( PLA) is a Biodegradable, Thermoplastic, Aliphatic Polyester derived from renewable resources

Plastarch material 

biodegradable and heat resistant, thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch. Plastarch Material ( PSM) is a Biodegradable, Thermoplastic resin

See also

• Conductive polymer
• Corn construction
• Molding (process)
  • Flexible mold
  • Injection molding
• Organic light emitting diode
• Plastic recycling
• Plastics engineering
• Plastics extrusion
• Plasticulture
• Polymer
• Synthetic fiber
• Self-healing plastic
• Thermoplastic
• Thermosetting plastic
• Timeline of materials technology

References

• Substantial parts of this text originated from An Introduction To Plastics v1.0 / 1 March 2001 / greg goebel / public domain

External links

• J. Harry Dubois Collection on the History of Plastics, ca. 1900-1975 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
• Plastics Materials A directory of resins from 600 plastics manufacturers.
• Periodic Table of Polymers Dr Robin Kent - Tangram Technology Ltd.
• Detailed Guide To All Plastics Processes British Plastics Federation
• Plastics Historical Society
• History of plastics, Society of the Plastics Industry
• My Plastics Industry
• PVCInformation.org -- A coalition of environmental health and justice organizations, with a particular focus on PVC
• The PVC Consumer Campaign
• Greenpeace page about the Pacific Trash Vortex