The main pipe organ in the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois, Paris (François-Henri Clicquot, 1771; Joseph Merklin, 1864). The Church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois is situated at 2 Place du Louvre Paris 75001 the nearest Métro station is Louvre-Rivoli Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city François-Henri Clicquot (1732&ndash May 24, 1790) was a French organ builder and was the grandson of Robert Clicquot and son of ^[1]

The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound when pressurized air (referred to as wind) is driven through a series of pipes. A musical instrument is a device constructed or modified for the purpose of making Music. An organ pipe is a sound-producing element of the Pipe organ that resonates at a specific pitch when pressurized air (commonly referred to as wind The admission of wind into the pipes is controlled by a keyboard. A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a Musical instrument, particularly the piano A pipe sounds when a key is depressed on the keyboard, allowing wind to pass through the pipe. Modern organs usually include one or more keyboards playable by the hands and one keyboard playable by the feet. Each keyboard controls a certain number of pipes. The smallest portable organs may have only a few dozen pipes and only one keyboard, while the largest organs may feature over 20,000 pipes and seven keyboards. ^[2] The organ's continuous supply of wind allows it to sustain sound for as long as a key is depressed. This is unlike other keyboard instruments such as the piano and harpsichord, whose sound begins to decay immediately after the key is struck. The piano is a Musical instrument played by means of a keyboard that produces sound by striking steel strings with Felt covered hammers A harpsichord is a Musical instrument played by means of a keyboard.

The origins of the pipe organ can be traced back to Ancient Greece in the third century BC. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca ^[3] The wind supply was originally created with water pressure. The water organ or hydraulic organ (early types are sometimes called hydraulis, hydraulos, hydraulus or hydraula) is a type of automatic Since the sixth or seventh century AD, bellows have been used. A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location ^[3] During the Renaissance period, the organ developed into a complex instrument capable of producing many different timbres. Renaissance music is European music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1400 - 1600 By the seventeenth century, virtually all of the tonal varieties available in the modern organ were present. ^[4]

Pipe organs are found in churches and synagogues, as well as secular town halls and arts buildings, where they are used for the performance of classical music. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of Classical music is a broad term that usually refers to mainstream music produced in or rooted in the traditions of Western liturgical and Secular music The organ boasts a substantial repertoire of both sacred and secular music spanning a period of more than 400 years. The organ repertoire consists of Music written for the organ. ^[5]

Construction

A pipe organ contains one or more sets of pipes, a wind system, and one or more keyboards. The pipes produce sound when pressurized air produced by the wind system is driven through them. An action connects the keyboards to the pipes. Stops allow the organist to control which ranks of pipes sound at any given time. The organist operates the stops and the keyboards from the console.

Pipes

Main article: Organ pipe

Organ pipes are made from either wood or metal and produce sound when wind is directed through them. An organ pipe is a sound-producing element of the Pipe organ that resonates at a specific pitch when pressurized air (commonly referred to as wind Because one pipe produces a single pitch, many pipes are necessary to allow the organ to sound a variety of pitches. Pitch represents the perceived Fundamental frequency of a sound The longer a pipe is, the lower its resulting pitch will be. The volume of the sound produced by the pipe depends on the pressure of the wind flowing to the pipe and how the pipe is voiced (adjusted by the builder to produce the desired tone and volume). Thus, the pipe's volume cannot be changed directly while playing.

Organ pipes are divided into flue pipes and reed pipes according to their design and timbre. A flue pipe (also referred to as a labial pipe is an Organ pipe that produces sound through the vibration of air molecules in the same manner as a Recorder A reed pipe (also referred to as a lingual pipe is an Organ pipe that is sounded by a vibrating Brass strip known as a reed. Flue pipes produce sound by forcing air through a fipple, like a recorder, whereas reed pipes produce sound via a beating reed, like a clarinet. Fipple Flute or Tubular Ducted Flute mouthpieces are commonly found on end-blown Woodwind instruments such as the Tin whistle and the Recorder The recorder is a woodwind Musical instrument of the family known as Fipple Flutes ' or internal duct flutes &mdash whistle-like A reed is a thin strip of material which vibrates to produce a sound on a Musical instrument. The clarinet is a Musical instrument in the Woodwind family The name derives from adding the suffix -et meaning little to the Italian word ^[6]

The pipes are arranged by timbre and pitch into rows called ranks and mounted vertically onto a windchest. In Music, timbre (ˈtæm-bər' like timber, or, from Fr timbre tɛ̃bʁ is the quality of a Musical note or sound that distinguishes different ^[7] A mechanism called a stop admits wind to each rank. An organ stop (or just stop) is a component of a Pipe organ which admits pressurized air (known as wind) to a set of Organ pipes Its name For a given pipe to sound, the stop governing the pipe's rank must be engaged, and the key corresponding to its pitch must be depressed. Ranks of pipes are organized into groups called divisions. Each division generally is played from its own keyboard and may contain one or more windchests.

Action

A cutaway view of a mechanical-action windchest. The trackers attach to a pallet from below at the left. When a key is pressed, the tracker pulls the pallet down and allows wind to enter the pipes.

An organ contains two systems of moving parts called actions. The key action admits wind into a pipe when a key is depressed, and the stop action allows the organist to control which ranks are engaged. An action may be either mechanical or electrical. ^[7] A key action which physically connects the keys and the windchests uses mechanical or tracker action. Tracker action is a term used in reference to Pipe organs to indicate a mechanical linkage between keys or pedals pressed by the organist and the valve that allows air to flow This connection is achieved through a series of rods called trackers. When the organist depresses a key, the corresponding tracker moves, allowing wind to enter the pipe. ^[8] In a mechanical stop action, each stop control is physically connected to a rank of pipes. When the organist activates the stop control, the action allows wind to flow into the selected rank. ^[7] This control is usually a stop knob, which the organist activates by pulling (or "drawing") towards himself. This is the origin of the idiom "to pull out all the stops". ^[9]

An electric action uses electric current to control the key and/or stop mechanisms. The electric current may operate the action indirectly through air pressure valves, in which case the action is referred to as electro-pneumatic. The electro-pneumatic action is a control system for Pipe organs whereby air Pressure, controlled by an Electric current and operated by the keys of an Because only electrical wiring is necessary to connect the console to the windchest, electric actions allow the console to be separated from the rest of the organ. ^[10] The key action is independent of the stop action, allowing an organ to feature a mechanical key action along with an electric stop action. A common electrical stop control is the rocker tab, which sits on a hinge and activates or deactivates an electrical circuit, depending on the direction in which it is pressed.

Wind system

A view from behind the organ in St. Raphael's Cathedral in Dubuque, Iowa, showing part of the wind system

An organ's wind system comprises the parts that produce, store, and deliver wind to the pipes. Dubuque is a city in the US State of Iowa, located along the Mississippi River. The pressure of the wind supply is measured by a manometer. Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of Pressure and Vacuum. In the United States and United Kingdom, wind pressure is described in "inches of water"; in other countries, the metric "millimetres of water" is often used instead. Inches of water, inAq, "Aq or inH20 is a non- SI unit for Pressure. Although the phrase is scientifically incorrect, pipe organs are said to be "on x inches (of wind)". ^[11][12] The exact wind pressure depends on the design of the organ. An Italian organ from the Renaissance period may only be on 2. 2 inches (56 mm),^[13] while certain stops in a large twentieth-century organ can feature wind pressures as high as 100 inches (2540 mm). ^[14]

After the invention of the bellows, wind was produced by mechanical means. A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location When signalled by the organist (often by a small bell), a person known as a calcant would operate a set of bellows, supplying them with air. ^[15] Therefore, playing the organ before electricity required at least one person to operate the bellows. Because calcants were expensive, organists would usually practice on smaller instruments that required no external energy source, such as the clavichord or harpsichord. The clavichord is a European stringed Keyboard instrument known from the late Medieval, through the Renaissance, Baroque and Classical A harpsichord is a Musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. ^[16] Beginning in the late nineteenth century, electric motors or blowers were used to fill the bellows with air. This made it possible for organists to practice regularly on the organ. Most organs, both new and historic, have electric blowers, though some organs' wind systems still can be operated manually. ^[17] The wind supplied is stored in one or more windchests to maintain a constant pressure until the action allows it to flow into the pipes. ^[18]

Stops

Main article: Organ stop

Stop knobs of the Baroque organ in Weingarten, Germany (Joseph Gabler, 1750). An organ stop (or just stop) is a component of a Pipe organ which admits pressurized air (known as wind) to a set of Organ pipes Its name Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. ^[19] The names are visible above the knobs, rather than engraved onto them.

Each stop usually controls one rank of pipes, although mixtures and undulating stops (such as the Voix céleste) control multiple ranks. A mixture is an Organ stop of principal tone quality that contains multiple ranks of pipes. The Voix celeste, ( Voix céleste) (heavenly voice is an Organ stop consisting of two ranks of pipes which are slightly detuned to the other to produce a beating ^[20] The name of the stop reflects not only the stop's timbre and construction, but also the style of the organ in which it resides. For example, the names on an organ built in the north German Baroque style generally will be derived from the German language, while the names of similar stops on an organ in the French Romantic style will usually be French. Most countries tend to use only their own languages for stop nomenclature. ^[21] English-speaking nations as well as Japan are more receptive to foreign nomenclature. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Stop names are not standardized: two otherwise identical stops from different organs may have different names.

In order to facilitate a large range of tone colors, organ stops exist at different pitch levels. A stop that sounds at unison pitch when a key is depressed is referred to as being at 8′ (pronounced "eight-foot") pitch. In Music, a unison () is an interval, the ratio of 11 or 0 half steps and zero cents. This refers to the length of the lowest-sounding pipe in that rank, which is approximately eight feet. For the same reason, a stop that sounds an octave higher is at 4′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves higher is at 2′ pitch. Likewise, a stop that sounds an octave lower than unison pitch is at 16′ pitch, and one that sounds two octaves lower is at 32′ pitch. ^[20] Stops of different pitch levels are designed to be played simultaneously. Rather than creating the impression of parallel octaves, the higher-pitched stops reinforce the partials of the unison- and lower-pitched stops, adding brilliance and clarity to the timbre. In Music, consecutive fifths (sometimes known as parallel fifths) are progressions in which a Perfect fifth is followed by a different perfect In Acoustics and Telecommunication, the harmonic of a Wave is a component Frequency of the signal that is an Integer

The label on a stop knob or rocker tab indicates the stop’s name and its pitch level expressed in feet. In the case of stops that control multiple ranks, a Roman numeral indicating the number of ranks will be present and may preclude the pitch level indication. Thus, a stop labelled "Open flute 8′" is a single-rank flute stop sounding at 8′ pitch. A stop labelled "Mixture V" is a five-rank mixture.

When a rank of pipes is made available as part of more than one stop, the rank is said to be unified or borrowed. For example, an 8′ Diapason rank may also be made available as a 4′ Octave. A flue pipe (also referred to as a labial pipe is an Organ pipe that produces sound through the vibration of air molecules in the same manner as a Recorder When both of these stops are selected and a key (for example, c′)^[22] is pressed, two pipes of the same rank will sound: the pipe normally corresponding to the key played (c′), and the pipe one octave above that (c′′). Because the 8′ rank does not have enough pipes to sound the top octave of the keyboard at 4′ pitch, it is common for an extra octave of pipes used only for the borrowed 4′ stop to be added. In this case, the full rank of pipes (now an extended rank) is one octave longer than the keyboard. An organ that includes many extended ranks is called an extension organ.

Some organs feature stops that do not employ pipes at all or use them in a way different from a traditional stop. The "Zimbelstern" (cymbal star), for example, is a revolving wheel of bells. The Zimbelstern (Meaning "Cymbal Star" in German, also spelled Cymbelstern or Zymbelstern) is a "toy" organ stop consisting of a metal The "Nightingale" admits wind into a pipe submerged in a small pool of water, creating the sound of a bird warbling. The "Effet d'orage" (thunder effect) is a device that sounds many of the large bass pipes simultaneously, creating the effect of thunder. Other stops imitate various percussion instruments, including the "Drum", "Chimes", "Celesta", and "Harp". The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. Tubular bells (also known as chimes) are Musical instruments in the percussion family The celesta (pronounced /səˈlɛstə/ or celeste (pronounced /səˈlɛst/ is a struck Idiophone operated by a keyboard. The harp is a Stringed instrument which has the plane of its strings positioned perpendicular to the soundboard.

Console

Main article: Organ console

The five-manual organ console at the United States Naval Academy Chapel (M. P. Moller, 1940), featuring 522 stop knobs^[23]

All the controls available to the organist, including the keyboards, couplers, expression pedals, stops, and registration aids, are accessed from the console. The Pipe organ is played from an area called the console, which holds the manuals pedals and stop controls The United States Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis, Maryland, is one of two houses of worship on the grounds of the Navy's Service academy. Mathias Peter Møller (more commonly known as MP Möller was a prolific Danish organ builder If the console is attached to the organ case (as in many mechanical-action organs), it may also be called the keydesk. If the console is separate from the organ case, it may be movable. Some organs have more than one console, allowing the organ to be played from different parts of the room.

Keyboards

Keyboards played by the hands are known as manuals (from the Latin manus, meaning "hand"). A manual is a keyboard designed to be played with the hands on a Pipe organ, Harpsichord, Clavichord, Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The keyboard played by the feet is a pedalboard. A pedalboard (also called a pedal keyboard pedal clavier or with electronic instruments a bass pedalboard is a keyboard played with the feet that is usually used to All organs have at least one manual (though most organs today have two or more manuals), and most also have a pedalboard. Each keyboard is named for a particular division of the organ (a group of ranks) and generally controls only the stops from that division. The range of the keyboards has varied widely across time and between countries. In Music, the range of a Musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play Most current specifications call for two or more manuals with sixty-one notes (five octaves, from C to c″″) and a pedalboard with thirty or thirty-two notes (two and a half octaves, from C to f′ or g′). ^[22][24]

Couplers

A coupler allows the stops of one division to be played from the keyboard of another division. For example, a coupler labelled "Swell to Great" allows the stops drawn in the Swell division to be played on the Great manual. This coupler is a unison coupler, because it causes the pipes of the Swell division to sound at the same pitch as the keys played on the Great manual. Coupling allows stops from different divisions to be combined to create various tonal effects. It also allows all the stops of the organ to be played simultaneously from one manual. ^[25]

Some organs feature octave couplers, which add the pipes an octave above ("super-octave") or below ("sub-octave") each note that is played. Octave couplers may operate on one division only (for example, the "Swell super octave," which adds the octave above what is being played on the Swell to itself), or they may act as a coupler to another keyboard (for example, the "Swell super-octave to Great," which adds to the Great manual the ranks of the Swell division an octave above what is being played on the Great manual). ^[25]

In addition, some organs feature unison off couplers, which prevent the stops pulled in a particular division from sounding at their normal pitch. Unison off couplers can be used in combination with octave couplers to create innovative aural effects, and can also be used to effectively rearrange the order of the manuals to make specific pieces easier to play. ^[25]

Enclosure and expression pedals

Main article: Expression pedal

The console of the organ in Salem Minster in Salem, Germany (Wilhelm Schwarz, 1901). An expression pedal is an important control found on many organs and Synthesizers that allows the volume of the sound to be manipulated Salem Abbey ( Kloster or Reichskloster Salem) also known as Salmansweiler and in Latin as Salomonis Villa, was a very prominent Salem is a municipality in the Bodensee district of Baden-Württemberg in Southern Germany, located 9 km north of Lake Constance, with a ^[19] The expression pedal is visible directly above the pedalboard.

The term enclosure refers to a system that allows for the control of volume without requiring the addition or subtraction of stops. In Music, dynamics normally refers to the volume of a Sound or note, but can also refer to every aspect of the execution of a given piece either stylistic The pipes of an enclosed division are placed in a chamber generally called the swell box. At least one side of the box is constructed from horizontal palettes known as swell shades or louvres (much like Venetian blinds), which can be fully or partially opened or closed from the console. For other uses see Blinds (disambiguation For the desktop theming software see WindowBlinds. When the shades are open, more sound is heard than when they are closed. In a two-manual organ with Great and Swell divisions, the Swell will be enclosed. ^[26] In larger organs, often part or all of the Choir and Solo divisions will be enclosed as well.

The most common way of controlling the movement of the swell shades is the balanced expression pedal. An expression pedal is an important control found on many organs and Synthesizers that allows the volume of the sound to be manipulated This device is usually placed above the centre of the pedalboard and is configured to rotate away from the organist from a near-vertical position (in which the shades are closed) to a near-horizontal position (in which the shades are open). ^[27] An organ may also have a similar-looking crescendo pedal, found alongside any expression pedals. A crescendo pedal is a large pedal commonly found on medium-sized and larger Pipe organs (as well as digital organs) either partially or fully recessed within Pressing the crescendo pedal forward cumulatively activates all the stops of the organ, starting with the softest and ending with the loudest; pressing it backwards reverses this process. ^[28]

Combination action

Main article: Combination action

The stops of an organ can be combined in many different ways, resulting in a great variety of sounds. A combination action is a system designed to capture specific organ registrations to be recalled instantaneously by the player while he is playing A specific combination of stops is called a registration. Registration is the technique of choosing and combining the stops of a Pipe organ in order to produce a particular sound A combination action can be used to switch instantly from one registration to another, much more quickly than the organist could change the stops by hand. The most common combination action features pistons, which are buttons that can be pressed by the organist. They are generally located beneath the keys of each manual ("thumb pistons") or above the pedalboard ("toe studs"). Combination actions allow the organist to program a registration (usually many registrations in different memory levels in modern organs) into each piston. Combination actions are based on computer memory chips, though simple mechanical combination actions combination actions were used before computer memory was introduced to organs in the 1960s.

Casing

The organ of the Severikirche in Erfurt, Germany, features a highly decorative case with ornate carvings and cherubs. Erfurt (ˈɛɐ̯fʊɐ̯t is a City in central Germany. It is the Capital of the state of Thuringia with a population of 202619 (2006 Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

The pipes, action, and wind system are contained in a case, the design of which may also incorporate the console. The case may be either freestanding or integrated with the building that houses the organ. It is often designed to complement the building's architectural style and it may contain ornamental carvings and other decorations. The visible, "front" portion of the case, called the façade, features decoratively arranged pipes. The façade pipes may be playable (in which case they are usually part of the 8′ principal-scale rank of the organ's primary division) or non-playable (in which case they are "dummy" pipes intended solely for decoration). The pipes may be plain, burnished, gilded, or painted. Burnishing (metalworking Burnishing is a form of Pottery decoration in which the surface of the pot is polished using a hard smooth surface such as a wooden or bone spatula Gilding is the art of applying a thin layer of gold simulated gold or other metal to a surface

Some organs feature a few ranks of pipes protruding horizontally from the case in the manner of a row of trumpets. These are referred to as pipes en chamade and are particularly common in organs of the Iberian peninsula and large modern instruments. En Chamade (French "to sound a parley" refers to powerfully voiced reed stops in a Pipe organ that are mounted horizontally rather than vertically in the front of The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra ^[29]

Many organs, particularly those built in the early twentieth century, are contained in one or more rooms called organ chambers. Because sound does not project from a chamber into the room as clearly as from a freestanding organ case, enchambered organs may sound muffled and distant. ^[30]

History and development

Antiquity

A painting of Saint Cecilia playing a portative (painting by Meister des Bartholomäus-Altars, 1501). Saint Cecilia (Sancta Caecilia is the Patron saint of Musicians and Church music. Her left hand can be seen operating the bellows.

The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music. Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the third century BC. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca ^[3] The word organ is derived from the Latin organum, an instrument similar to a portative organ used in ancient Roman circus games. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. An organum is any one of a number of musical instruments which were the forerunners of the organ. A portative organ ( portatif organ, portativ organ, or simply portative, portatif, or portativ) (from the Latin verb Organum is derived in turn from the Greek όργανον (organon),^[31] a generic term for an instrument or a tool. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly ^[32]

The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the third century BC. Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( Greek Κτησίβιος ( fl He devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes. The water organ or hydraulic organ (early types are sometimes called hydraulis, hydraulos, hydraulus or hydraula) is a type of automatic ^[33] The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The pumps and water regulators of the hydraulis were replaced by an inflated leather bag in the second century AD^[33], and true bellows began to appear in the sixth or seventh century AD. A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location ^[3]

Portable organs (the portative and the positive organ) were invented in the Middle Ages. A positive organ (pronounced "posi' teev' " also positiv organ, positif organ, portable organ, chair organ, or simply Towards the middle of the thirteenth century, the portatives represented in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys, as in the Cantigas de Santa Maria. The word miniature, derived from the Latin minium, Red lead, is a picture in an ancient or Medieval Illuminated manuscript The Cantigas de Santa Maria ("Songs to the Virgin Mary" are manuscripts written in Galician-Portuguese, with music notation during the reign of Alfonso ^[34] Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings.

Large organs such as the one installed in 1361 in Halberstadt, Germany (the first documented permanent organ installation)^[35] likely prompted Guillaume de Machaut to describe the organ as "the king of instruments", a characterization still frequently applied. Halberstadt is a City in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt and the capital of the district of Harz. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Guillaume de Machaut, sometimes spelled Machault (c 1300 – April 1377 was an important Medieval French Poet and Composer. ^[36] The Halberstadt organ was the first instrument to use a chromatic key layout across its three manuals and pedalboard, although the keys were wider than on modern instruments. ^[37] It had twenty bellows operated by ten men, and the wind pressure was so high that the player had to use the full power of his arm to hold down a key. ^[35]

Until the mid-fifteenth century, most large organs had no stop controls. Each manual controlled many ranks at multiple pitches. This large number of ranks was called the Blockwerk. ^[38] Around 1450, controls were designed that allowed the ranks of the Blockwerk to be played individually. These devices were the forerunners of modern stop actions. ^[39] Some of the higher-pitched ranks of the Blockwerk remained grouped together under a single stop control; these stops developed into mixtures. ^[40]

Renaissance and Baroque periods

The baroque organ in Roskilde Cathedral, Denmark (Hermean Raphaelis, 1554)^[41]

During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the organ's tonal colors became more varied. Baroque music describes an era and a set of styles of European classical music which were in widespread use between approximately 1600 and 1750. Roskilde Cathedral (Roskilde Domkirke in the city of Roskilde on the Island of Zealand ( Sjælland) in eastern Denmark, was the first The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Renaissance music is European music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1400 - 1600 Baroque music describes an era and a set of styles of European classical music which were in widespread use between approximately 1600 and 1750. Organ builders fashioned stops that imitated various instruments, such as the krumhorn and the gamba. The crumhorn is a Musical instrument of the Woodwind family most commonly used during the Renaissance period The Baroque period is often thought of as organ building's "golden age," as virtually every important refinement was brought to a culminating art. ^[42] Builders such as Arp Schnitger, Jasper Johannsen, and Gottfried Silbermann constructed instruments that were in themselves artistic masterpieces, displaying both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound. Arp Schnitger (born 1648-07-02 in Schmalenfleth, buried 1719-07-28) was a highly influential German master organ builder Gottfried Silbermann ( January 14, 1683 - August 4, 1753) was an influential German constructor of keyboard instruments All of these organs featured well-balanced mechanical key actions, giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech. Schnitger's organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions. ^[42]

Several circumstances, including changing political climates, led to different national styles of organ building. ^[43] In the Netherlands, the organ became a large instrument with several divisions, doubled ranks, and mounted cornets. The organs of northern Germany also had several divisions, and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common. ^[43] The divisions of the organ became visibly discernible from the case design. Twentieth-century musicologists labelled this the Werkprinzip. ^[44]

In France, organs were designed to accompany the liturgy. A standardized set of registrations developed for each movement of the Mass. ^[45] This style of organ building, called French Classical, became remarkably consistent throughout France over the course of the Baroque era, moreso than any other style of organ building in history. ^[46] It was elaborately described by Dom Bédos de Celles in his treatise L'art du facteur d'orgues (The Art of Organ Building). François Lamathe Bédos de Celles de Salelles known as Dom Bédos de Celles, (born in Caux Hérault near Béziers, France 24 January 1709 was a ^[47]

In England, existing pipe organs were destroyed during the English Reformation of the sixteenth century and the Commonwealth period. The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England first broke away from the authority of the Pope The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland It was not until the Restoration that many organ builders (particularly Renatus Harris and "Father" Bernard Smith) brought new organ-building ideas from continental Europe. The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored Renatus Harris (c 1652 - 1724 was a master organ maker in England in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries "Father" Bernard Smith (c 1630 - 1708 was a German-born master organ maker in England in the late seventeenth century English organs evolved from small one- or two-manual instruments into three or more divisions disposed in the French manner with grander reeds and mixtures. ^[48] The Echo division began to be enclosed in the early eighteenth century, and in 1712 Abraham Jordan claimed his "swelling organ" at St Magnus-the-Martyr to be a new invention. St Magnus-the-Martyr is an Anglican church in Bridge ward of the City of London, located on Lower Thames Street near the modern London ^[49] The swell box^[48] and the independent pedal division^[50] appeared in English organs beginning in the eighteenth century.

Romantic period

The English Romantic organ at the Parish Church of Saint Mary the Virgin in Ewell, Surrey

During the Romantic period, the organ became more symphonic, capable of creating a gradual crescendo. Romantic Music is a Musicological term referring to a particular period theory compositional practice and canon in European music history from about 1815 to 1910 The Anglican Church of St Mary the Virgin Ewell is the civic church of the borough of Epsom and Ewell in the County of Surrey in Ewell is a village in the borough of Epsom and Ewell in Surrey, close to the southern boundary of Greater London. Surrey is a county in the South East of England and is one of the Home Counties. Romantic Music is a Musicological term referring to a particular period theory compositional practice and canon in European music history from about 1815 to 1910 New technologies and the work of organ builders such as Aristide Cavaillé-Coll and Henry Willis made it possible to build larger organs with more stops, more variation in sound and timbre, and more divisions. Aristide Cavaillé-Coll ( 4 February 1811 &ndash 13 October 1899) was a French Organ builder. Henry Willis & Sons is a firm of Pipe organ builders founded in 1845 in the UK, examples of whose work can also be found in other countries ^[48] Enclosed divisions became common, and registration aids were developed in order to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops. The desire for louder, grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before. As a result, a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys. To solve this problem, Cavaillé-Coll configured the English "Barker lever" to assist in operating the key action. ^[51]

Organ builders began to lean towards specifications with fewer mixtures and high-pitched stops. They preferred to use more 8′ and 16′ stops in their specifications and wider pipe scales. These practices created a warmer, richer sound than was common in the eighteenth century. Organs began to be built in concert halls (such as the organ at the Palais du Trocadéro in Paris), and composers such as Camille Saint-Saëns and Gustav Mahler used the organ in their orchestral works. The Trocadéro, site of the Palais de Chaillot, is an area of Paris, in the 16th ''arrondissement'', across the Seine from the Eiffel Tower Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns (/ʃaʁl kamij sɛ̃sɑ̃s/ (9 October 1835 &ndash 16 December 1921 was a French Composer, Organist, conductor, and

Modern development

The 2006 Rembrandt Digital organ

The development of pneumatic, electro-pneumatic, and electric key actions in the late nineteenth century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes, greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design. Electric stop actions were also developed, which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created. ^[52]

In the mid-twentieth century, many organ builders subscribing to the tenets of the Orgelbewegung ("organ reform movement") began to build historically-inspired instruments modeled on Baroque organs. The historically informed performance, period performance, or authentic performance movement is an approach by musicians and scholars to research and perform works They returned to building mechanical key actions, voicing with lower wind pressures and thinner pipe scales, and designing specifications with more mixture stops. ^[53]

The technology of electronic organs developed throughout the twentieth century. An electronic organ is an Electronic keyboard instrument originally designed to imitate the sound of a Pipe organ. Many pipe organs were replaced by digital organs because of their lower purchase price, smaller physical size, and minimal maintenance requirements. Hybrid organs, usually called pipe/digital combination organs, incorporate both pipes and electronic representations of pipe sounds. Rodgers Instruments pioneered the hybrid organ in the early 1970s and remains the leader in this field. Rodgers Instruments LLC manufactures church organs, using patented stereophonic digital organ technology

Some components of digital organs are being incorporated into pipe organs, allowing simpler and more reliable key, stop, and combination actions. This also makes it possible to record and play back an organist’s performance via the MIDI protocol. MIDI ( Musical Instrument Digital Interface, ˈmɪdi is an industry-standard protocol that enables Electronic musical instruments Computers Although some feel the sound of a pipe organ cannot be completely replicated by a digital organ, it is becoming increasingly common for organ builders to place digital stops in new organs.

Repertoire

Main articles: Organ repertoire and List of organ composers

The development of organ repertoire has progressed along with that of the organ itself, leading to distinctive national styles of composition. The organ repertoire consists of Music written for the organ. The following is a list of organ composers. It details those composers who wrote or write for the pipe organ. Because organs are commonly found in churches and synagogues, the organ repertoire includes a large amount of sacred music, which is accompanimental (choral anthems, congregational hymns, liturgical elements, etc. Religious music (also sacred music) is Music performed or composed for religious use or through religious influence The term anthem means either a specific form of Anglican church music (in Music theory and religious contexts or more generally a song (or composition of A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities A liturgy is the customary public worship done by a specific religious group according to their particular traditions ) as well as solo in nature (chorale preludes, hymn versets designed for alternatim use, etc. In music a chorale prelude is a short liturgical composition for organ using a Chorale tune as its basis Alternatim refers to a technique of liturgical musical performance ). The organ's secular repertoire includes preludes, fugues, sonatas, organ symphonies, suites, and transcriptions of orchestral works. Secular music is non- Sacred music that developed in the Middle Ages. In Music, a fugue (ˈfjuːg is a type of contrapuntal composition or technique of composition for a fixed number of parts, normally referred Usage of sonata The Baroque applied the term sonata to a variety of works though most works in the Baroque Period were fugues and toccatas This article is about music For other uses see Transcription disambiguation page In Music, transcription is the act of notating

The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach forms the core of the instrument's repertoire (portrait by Elias Gottlob Haussmann, c. Elias Gottlob Haussmann (also Haußmann or Hausmann (1695 &ndash 11 April 1774) was a German painter in the late Baroque era 1748).

Although most countries whose music falls into the Western tradition have contributed to the organ repertoire, France and Germany in particular have produced exceptionally large amounts of organ music. Classical music is a broad term that usually refers to mainstream music produced in or rooted in the traditions of Western liturgical and Secular music There is also an extensive repertoire from the Netherlands, England, and the United States. Most composers of organ music throughout history have been organists themselves. With the notable exception of Johann Sebastian Bach, few composers who have contributed extensively to the organ repertoire are well-known except for their organ music. WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section.2 This article is written in British English including maximised use of "-ise" Similarly, few composers well-known in other genres have written much music for the organ.

Before the Baroque era, keyboard music generally was not written for one instrument or another, but rather was written to be played on any keyboard instrument. For this reason, much of the organ's repertoire through the Renaissance period is the same as that of the harpsichord. A harpsichord is a Musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. Pre-Renaissance keyboard music is found in compiled manuscripts that may include compositions from a variety of regions. The oldest of these sources is the Robertsbridge Codex, dating from about 1360. ^[54] The Buxheimer Orgelbuch, which dates from about 1470 and was compiled in Germany, includes intabulations of vocal music by the English composer John Dunstable. John Dunstaple or Dunstable (c 1390 &ndash December 24, 1453) was an English composer of polyphonic Music of the late ^[55] The earliest Italian organ music is found in the Faenza Codex, dating from 1420. ^[56]

In the Renaissance period, Netherlandish composers such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck composed both fantasias and psalm settings. Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (April or May 1562 &ndash October 16 1621 was a Dutch Composer, Organist, and Pedagogue whose work straddled the The fantasia (also fantasy fancy Fantasie fantaisie is a musical composition with its roots in the art of Improvisation. Sweelinck in particular developed a rich collection of keyboard figuration that influenced subsequent composers. ^[57] The Italian composer Claudio Merulo wrote in the typical Italian genres of the toccata, the canzona, and the ricercar. Claudio Merulo (also spelled Merlotti Merulus also Claudio da Correggio 8 April 1533 – 4 May 1604) was an Italian Composer Toccata (from Italian toccare, "to touch" is a Virtuoso piece of music typically for a keyboard or Plucked string instrument In music a canzona (also Canzone) was a 16th-century multipart vocal setting of a literary canzone and a 16th - and 17th-century instrumental A ricercar (or ricercare recercar; the terms are interchangeable is a type of late Renaissance and mostly early Baroque instrumental composition ^[58] In Spain, the works of Antonio de Cabezón began the most prolific period of Spanish organ composition,^[59] which culminated with Juan Cabanilles. Antonio de Cabezón (1510 &ndash March 26, 1566) was a Spanish composer and Organist of the Renaissance. Juan Bautista José Cabanilles ( September 6 1644 in Algemesi near Valencia &ndash April 29 1712 in Valencia was a Spanish

Early Baroque organ music in Germany was highly contrapuntal. In Music, counterpoint is the relationship between two or more voices that are independent in contour and Rhythm, and interdependent in Harmony Sacred organ music was based on chorales: composers such as Samuel Scheidt and Heinrich Scheidemann wrote chorale preludes, chorale fantasias, and chorale motets. Samuel Scheidt (baptized November 3 1587 &ndash March 24 1654 was a German Composer, organist and teacher of the early Baroque era Heinrich Scheidemann (c 1595 &ndash 1663 was a German organist and composer The fantasia (also fantasy fancy Fantasie fantaisie is a musical composition with its roots in the art of Improvisation. The chorale motet was a type of musical composition in mostly Protestant parts of Europe principally Germany, and mainly during the 16th century. ^[59] Towards the end of the Baroque era, the chorale prelude and the partita became mixed, forming the chorale partita. A chorale partita is a piece of music written for a Keyboard instrument that is based on a Chorale. ^[60] This genre was developed by Georg Böhm, Johann Pachelbel, and Dieterich Buxtehude. Georg Böhm ( September 2, 1661 - May 18, 1733) was a German Baroque Organist and Composer. Dieterich Buxtehude ( Dietrich, Diderich) (c 1637 &ndash 9 May 1707 was a German-Danish Organist, Lutenist The primary type of free-form piece in this period was the praeludium, as exemplified in the works of Matthias Weckmann, Nicolaus Bruhns, Böhm, and Buxtehude. Matthias Weckmann ( Weckman) (probably 1616 - February 24 1674 was a North German musician and composer of the Baroque period Nicolaus Bruhns ( Nikolaus, Nicholas) (1665 - March 29 1697 was one of the greatest Organists and Composers of his time ^[61] The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach fused characteristics of every national tradition and historical style in his large-scale preludes and fugues and chorale-based works. ^[62] Towards the end of the Baroque era, George Frideric Handel composed the first organ concertos. The term Concerto (plural concertos or concerti) usually refers to a three part musical work in which one solo instrument is accompanied by an Orchestra ^[63]

César Franck's works ushered in the Romantic era of organ music (portrait by Jeanne Rongier, 1888).

In France, organ music developed during the Baroque era through the music of Jean Titelouze, François Couperin, and Nicolas de Grigny. Jean ( Jehan) Titelouze (c 1562/3 &ndash 24 October 1633 was a French composer poet and organist of the early Baroque period François Couperin (fʀɑ̃swa kuˈpʀɛ̃ (November 10 1668 &ndash September 11 1733 was a French Baroque composer organist and harpsichordist Nicolas de Grigny ( baptized September 8 1672 &ndash November 30 1703 was a French Organist and Composer. ^[64] Because the French organ of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was very standardized, a conventional set of registrations developed for its repertoire. Registration is the technique of choosing and combining the stops of a Pipe organ in order to produce a particular sound The music of French composers (and Italian composers such as Girolamo Frescobaldi) was written for use during the Mass. Girolamo Frescobaldi (baptized mid-September 1583 – March 1 1643 was an Italian musician one of the most important Composers of keyboard music in the late The Mass is the Eucharistic celebration in the Latin liturgical rites of the Roman Catholic Church. Very little secular organ music was composed in France and Italy during the Baroque period; the written repertoire is almost exclusively intended for liturgical use. ^[65] In England, composers such as John Blow and John Stanley wrote multi-sectional free works for liturgical use called voluntaries through the nineteenth century. John Blow (baptised 23 February 1649 &ndash 1 October 1708 was an English Composer and Organist. John Stanley may refer to John I Stanley of the Isle of Man (c ^[66][67]

Little organ music was written in the Classical era, as composers preferred the piano due to its ability to create dynamics. ^[68] As smooth crescendos and diminuendos became possible for the organ in the Romantic era, the intricate counterpoint of the eighteenth century was supplanted by homophonic textures. The French organist-composers César Franck and Charles-Marie Widor led organ music into the symphonic realm. César Franck (December 10 1822 – November 8 1890 a Composer, Organist and music teacher of Belgian and German origin who lived in France Charles-Marie Jean Albert Widor (February 21 1844 &ndash March 12 1937 was a French organist, Composer and teacher ^[68] The development of symphonic organ music continued with Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire. Louis Victor Jules Vierne was a renowned French organist and Composer. Charles Tournemire ( Bordeaux, January 22 1870 &ndash Arcachon, November 3 1939) was a French Composer Widor and Vierne wrote large-scale, multi-movement works called organ symphonies that exploited the full possibilities of the symphonic organ. ^[69] In Germany, the sonatas of Felix Mendelssohn and Josef Rheinberger bridged the gap between the Baroque and Romantic periods. Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, born and generally known as Felix Mendelssohn (February 3 1809 &ndash November 4 1847 was a German Composer Joseph Gabriel Rheinberger (also Josef ( March 17, 1839, in Vaduz &ndash November 25, 1901, in Munich) was a Liechtensteinian Max Reger and Sigfrid Karg-Elert's symphonic works made use of the abilities of the large Romantic organs being built in Germany at the time. Johann Baptist Joseph Maximilian Reger ( March 19 1873 &ndash May 11 1916) was a German Composer, conductor Sigfrid Karg-Elert ( November 21 1877 - April 9 1933) was a German composer of considerable fame in the early twentieth century best ^[68]

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, organ builders began to build instruments in concert halls and other large secular venues, allowing the organ to be used as part of an orchestra, as in Saint-Saëns' Symphony No. 3. The Symphony No 3 in C minor Op 78 was completed by Camille Saint-Saëns in 1886 at what was probably the artistic zenith of his career ^[68] Frequently the organ is given a soloistic part, such as in Joseph Jongen's Symphonie Concertante for Organ & Orchestra, and Francis Poulenc's Concerto for Organ, Strings and Tympani. Joseph Jongen ( December 14, 1873 &ndash July 12, 1953) was a Belgian Organist, Composer, and Music See also, Rhône-Poulenc Francis Jean Marcel Poulenc (fʀɑ̃sis ʒɑ̃ maʀsɛl pulɛ̃k January 7, 1899 – January 30, Other composers who have used the organ prominently in orchestral music include Gustav Holst, Richard Strauss, Ottorino Respighi, Gustav Mahler, Anton Bruckner, and Ralph Vaughan Williams. Gustav Theodore Holst (21 September 1874 – 25 May 1934was an English Composer and was a music teacher for nearly 20 years Richard Georg Strauss (11 June 1864 &ndash 8 September 1949 was a German Composer of the late Romantic era and early modern era particularly noted For the astronomer see Lorenzo Respighi (1824—1889 For the crater named after Lorenzo Respighi see Respighi (crater. Anton Bruckner (4 September 1824 &ndash 11 October 1896 was an Austrian composer known primarily for his symphonies, masses, and Motets Ralph (reɪf Vaughan Williams OM (12 October 1872 &ndash 26 August 1958 was an English Composer of symphonies, Chamber music ^[70] Because these concert hall instruments could approximate the sounds of symphony orchestras, transcriptions of orchestral works found a place in the organ repertoire. This article is about music For other uses see Transcription disambiguation page In Music, transcription is the act of notating ^[71] As silent films became popular, theatre organs were installed in many theatres in order to provide accompaniment for the films. A theatre organ is a Pipe organ originally designed specifically for imitation of an orchestra but in latter years new designs have tended to be around some of the sounds and Cinemaaustraliajpg|thumb|A movie theater in Australia ]]A movie theater, movie theatre, picture theatre or cinema is a venue ^[68]

In the twentieth century, two tracks of organ repertoire developed. Symphonic repertoire, both secular^[72] and sacred, continued to progress through the music of Marcel Dupré, Maurice Duruflé, and Herbert Howells. Marcel Dupré (May 3 1886 &ndash May 30 1971 was a French Organist, Pianist, Composer, and Pedagogue. Maurice Duruflé (January 11 1902 &ndash June 16 1986 was a French Composer, Organist, and Pedagogue. Herbert Norman Howells CH (17 October 1892 &ndash 23 February 1983 was an English Composer, organist, and teacher ^[68] Other composers, such as Olivier Messiaen, Jehan Alain, Jean Langlais, and Petr Eben, wrote post-tonal organ music. Olivier Messiaen ( December 10 1908 &ndash April 27 1992 was a French Composer, organist and ornithologist. Jehan Ariste Alain (February 3 1911 &ndash June 20 1940 was a French organist and Composer. Jean Langlais (15 February 1907 &ndash 8 May 1991 was a French Composer of Modern classical music, Organist, and Improviser. Petr Eben ( 22 January 1929 &ndash 24 October 2007) was one of the most distinguished Composers in the Czech Republic. ^[68] Messiaen's music in particular redefined many of the traditional notions of organ registration and technique. ^[73]

See also

• Organ tablature
• List of notable pipe organs
• List of organ builders
• List of organ pieces
• Hydraulophone

Notes

References

• Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "Organ building today". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 82–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "Organ construction". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 18–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "The organ case". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 55–81. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Cox, Geoffrey (1999). "English organ music to c1700". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 109–203. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Dalton, James (1999). "Iberian organ music before 1700". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 165–175. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Douglass, Fenner (1995). The Language of the Classical French Organ. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06426-1
• Higginbottom, Edward (1999). "The French classical organ school". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 176–189. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• McCrea, Andrew (1999). "British organ music after 1800". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 279–298. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Randel, Don Michael (Ed. ) (1986). The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-61525-5
• Stembridge, Christopher (1999). Italian organ music to Frescobaldi. In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 148–163. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Sumner, William Leslie (1973). The Organ: Its Evolution, Principles of Construction and Use. London: Macdonald. ISBN 356-04162-X
• Thistlethwaite, Nicholas (1999). "Origins and development of the organ". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 1–17. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Webber, Geoffrey (1999). "The north German organ school". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds. ), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 219–235. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2
• Wicks Organ Company (2005). Glossary of Organ Terms. Retrieved on 2007-05-23. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne

Further reading

• Bédos de Celles, Dom François (1768). L'art du facteur d'orgues. Charles Ferguson (Trans. ) (1977). The Organ-Builder. Raleigh, NC: Sunbury Press.
• Bush, Douglas and Kassel, Richard (Ed. ) (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415941747
• Klotz, Hans (1969). The Organ Handbook. St. Louis: Concordia. ISBN 978-0570013068
• Ochse, Orpha (1975). The History of the Organ in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Sumner, William L. (1973). The Organ: Its evolution, principles of construction and use (4th ed. ). London: MacDonald. No ISBN.
• Williams, Peter (1966). The European Organ, 1458–1850. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-32083-6
• Williams, Peter (1980). A New History of the Organ from the Greeks to the Present Day. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253157041

External links

• Pipedreams, a radio program devoted to organ music.
• Sacred Classics, an online radio program of organ and choral music.
• The Pipe Organ
• Pipe organ videos
• A Young Person's Guide to the Pipe Organ, by Sandra Soderlund
• Encyclopedia of Organ Stops, a comprehensive database of over 2500 stops with descriptions, pictures, and sound clips.
• Jeux d'orgues Pipe organ soundbanks
• Pipe Organ Wiki
• Pipe Organ Forum
• http://bach.tuning.googlepages.com/, a description of Johann Sebastian Bach's recently-deciphered tuning instructions.
• Flue Pipe Acoustics
• Organ transcriptions and the Late Romantic Period
• Olivier Messiaen and the Organ, a film about the organ at La Sainte-Trinité in Paris, from the Philharmonia Orchestra's Messiaen website

Databases

• International Organ Foundation online pipe organ database (5000+ organs in 60+ countries)
• Organ Historical Society Pipe Organ Database
• The Top 20 - The World's Largest Pipe Organs
• National Pipe Organ Register (NPOR) - History and specifications of 28,000 pipe organs in the United Kingdom
• The world's largest organs with photos and stoplists