Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the two major subfields of geography. Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Physical geography focuses on understanding the processes and patterns in the natural environment, as opposed to the built environment which is the domain of Human geography. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and The phrase built environment refers to the man-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity ranging from the large-scale civic surroundings to the personal places Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Within the body of physical geography the Earth is often split either into several spheres or into different environments, with the main spheres being the; Atmosphere, Biosphere, Cryosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Pedosphere. For the sciences that study the Earth's spheres see Earth science#Earth's spheres The Earth's spheres relates to the division of the Earth Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. The cryosphere, derived from the Greek word kryo for " Cold " or "too cold" is the term which collectively describes the portions of The term Geosphere is often used to refer to the densest parts of Earth which consist mostly of rock and Regolith. A hydrosphere (from Greek ύδωρ - hydor, " Water " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " The lithosphere (IPA, from the Greek λίθος for "rocky" + σφαίρα for "sphere" is the solid outermost shell of a rocky Planet. The pedosphere (from the Greek πέδον soil earth + σφαίρα sphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of Soil and subject to soil Within physical geography there are various fields of study, mainly but not exclusively focusing on the spheres of the earth. Research in physical geography is often interdisciplinary and uses the systems approach. Systems thinking is a unique approach to problem solving in that it views certain "problems" as parts of an overall system rather than focusing on individual outcomes and contributing

Contents 1 Fields of physical geography 2 Physical geography literature 3 List of notable physical geographers 4 See also 5 Further reading 6 External links

Fields of physical geography

• Geomorphology is the science concerned with understanding the surface of the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as well as in the past. "Natural Bridges" redirects here for the US National Monument see Natural Bridges National Monument. Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" The lithosphere (IPA, from the Greek λίθος for "rocky" + σφαίρα for "sphere" is the solid outermost shell of a rocky Planet. Geomorphology as a field has several sub-fields that deal with the specific landforms of various environments e. g. desert geomorphology and fluvial geomorphology, however, these sub-fields are united by the core processes which cause them; mainly tectonic or climatic processes. A desert is a Landscape or region that receives very little precipitation. Fluvial is used in Geography and Earth science to refer to the deposits and landforms created by the action of rivers or streams and the processes associated with Geomorphology seeks to understand landform history and dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling (Geomorphometry). Geomorphometry is the science of quantitative Land surface analysis Early studies in geomorphology are the foundation for pedology, one of two main branches of soil science. Soil science is the study of Soil as a Natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping

• Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological cycle. A meander in general is a bend in a sinuous watercourse also known as an oxbow loop or simply an Oxbow. Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of The Earth 's Water is always in movement and the water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on above Thus the field encompasses water in rivers, lakes, aquifers and to an extent glaciers, in which the field examines the process and dynamics involved in these bodies of water. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there A lake (from Latin lacus) is a Terrain feature (or Physical feature) a body of Liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the An aquifer is an underground layer of Water -bearing Permeable rock or unconsolidated materials ( Gravel, Sand, Silt, or Clay "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. Hydrology originated from engineering and has thus developed a largely quantitative method in its research, however, it does have an earth science side that embraces the systems approach. Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet Similar to most fields of physical geography it has sub-fields that examine the specific bodies of water or their interaction with other spheres e. g. limnology and ecohydrology. Limnology (from Greek Λίμνη limne, "lake" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the division of Hydrology that studies inland Ecohydrology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" grc ὕδωρ hydōr, "water" and grc -λογία -logia

• Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly the cryosphere or ice and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology (from Middle French dialect (Franco-Provençal glace, "ice" or Latin glacies, "frost ice" and Greek λόγος "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. An ice sheet is a mass of Glacier Ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km² (20000 mile²) The cryosphere, derived from the Greek word kryo for " Cold " or "too cold" is the term which collectively describes the portions of Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia Glaciology groups the latter (ice sheets) as continental glaciers and the former (glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Although, research in the areas are similar with research undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers the latter tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets with the present climate and the latter with the impact of glaciers on the landscape. Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields examining the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers e. g. snow hydrology and glacial geology. "Snowfall" redirects here For other uses see Snow (disambiguation or Snowfall (disambiguation. Glaciology (from Middle French dialect (Franco-Provençal glace, "ice" or Latin glacies, "frost ice" and Greek λόγος

• Biogeography is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns. The Wallace Line (or Wallace's Line) is a boundary that separates the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australia. Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work of Alfred Russel Wallace, although the field prior to the late twentieth century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and descriptive in its approach. Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer The main stimulus for the field since its founding has been that of evolution, plate tectonics and the theory of island biogeography. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere The field can largely be divided into five sub-fields: island biogeography, paleobiogeography, phylogeography, zoogeography and phytogeography

• Climatology is the study of the climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. Island biogeography is a field within Biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the Species richness of natural communities Phylogeography is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the contemporary geographic distributions of individuals Zoogeography is the branch of the science of Biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of Animal Species and their attributes Phytogeography, also called geobotany is the branch of Biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of Plant Species, or more generally Climatology (from Greek grc κλίμα klima, "region zone" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of Climate, scientifically Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of As opposed to meteorology which studies atmospheric processes over a shorter duration, which are then examined by climatologist to find trends and frequencies in weather patterns/ phenomena. Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Climatology, examines both the nature of micro (local) and macro (global) climates and the natural and anthropogenic influences on them. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without The field is also sub-divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study of specific phenomena or time periods e. g. tropical cyclone rainfall climatology and paleoclimatology. A tropical cyclone rainfall climatology is developed to determine rainfall characteristics of past tropical cyclones Paleoclimatology (also Palaeoclimatology) is the study of Climate change taken on the scale of the entire History of Earth.

• Pedology is the study of soils in its natural environment. The nitrogen cycle is the Biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of Nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds in nature Pedology (from Greek πέδον pedon, "soil" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of soils in their natural environment It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Soil science is the study of Soil as a Natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping Edaphology (from Greek grc ἔδαφος edaphos, "ground" and grc -λογία -logia) is one of two main divisions of Soil Pedology mainly deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, soil classification. Pedogenesis or soil evolution (formation is the process by which Soil is created Soil morphology is the field observable attributes of the soil within the various Soil horizons and the description of the kind and arrangement of the horizons Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of Soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use In physical geography pedology is largely studied due to the numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals), the mineral materials within soils (biogeochemical cycles) and its position and effects on the landscape such as laterization. In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic Tropical rainforests are generally found near the Equator. They are common in Asia, Australia, Africa, South America, Central

• Palaeogeography is the study of the distribution of the continents through geologic time through examining the preserved material in the stratigraphic record. Palaeogeography (sometimes spelled paleogeography) is the study of what the Geography was in times past Palaeogeography is a cross-discipline, almost all the evidence for the positions of the continents comes from geology in the form of fossils or geophysics the use of this data has resulted in evidence for continental drift, plate tectonics and supercontinents this in turn has supported palaeogeographic theories such as the Wilson cycle. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Geophysics, a major discipline of Earth sciences, is the study of the Earth by quantitative physical methods especially by seismic, electromagnetic Continental drift is the movement of the Earth 's Continents relative to each other Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere In Geology, a supercontinent is a Landmass comprising more than one Continental core or Craton. The supercontinent cycle describes the quasi-periodic aggregration and dispersal of Earth 's Continental crust.

• Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i. Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land incorporating both the Physical geography (i e coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering, and also the ways in which humans interact with the coast. Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, Soils and their Minerals through direct contact with the planet's Atmosphere. Coastal geography although predominantly geomorphological in its research is not just concerned with coastal landforms, but also the causes and influences of sea level change. Sea-level rise is an increase in Sea level. Multiple complex factors may influence this change

• Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. The term thermohaline circulation (THC refers to the part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is thought to be driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and Oceanography (from the greek words Ωκεανός meaning Ocean and γράφω meaning to write also called oceanology or It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics (biological oceanography); ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (physical oceanography); plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor (geological oceanography); and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries (chemical oceanography). Marine biology is the scientific study of living Organisms in the Ocean or other marine or Brackish bodies of water Physical oceanography is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the Ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters Marine geology involves Geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and Paleontological investigations of the Ocean floor and coastal Chemical oceanography is the study of the behavior of the Chemical elements within the Earth 's Oceans The ocean is unique in that it contains - in greater These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it.

• Quaternary science is an inter-disciplinary field of study focusing on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2. Quaternary science is an Inter-disciplinary field of study focusing on the Quaternary period which encompasses the last 2 Overview The term Quaternary ("fourth" was proposed by Giovanni Arduino in 1759 for alluvial deposits in the Po river valley in northern 6 million years. The field studies the last ice age and the recent interstadial the Holocene and uses proxy evidence to reconstruct the past environments during this period to infer the climatic and environmental changes that have occurred. A stadial is a period of colder Temperatures during an Interglacial, of insufficient duration or intensity to be considered a Glaciation, or glacial period The Holocene is a Geological epoch which began approximately 10000 years ago (about 8000 BC

• Landscape ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology and geography that address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials and individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the distribution of landscape "elements" themselves such as hedgerows). Habitat fragmentation is a process of environmental change important in Evolution and Conservation biology. Landscape ecology is the science and art of studying and improving the relationship between spatial pattern and ecological processes on a multitude of scales and organizational levels (Wu 2006 2008 Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of The field was largely founded by the German geographer Carl Troll Landscape ecology typically deals with problems in an applied and holistic context. Juan Carlos Troll ( 24 December 1899 in Gabersee - 21 July 1975 in Bonn) was a German geographer brother of botanist The main difference between biogeography and landscape ecology is that the latter is concerned with how flows or energy and material are changed and their impacts on the landscape whereas the former is concerned with the spatial patterns of species and chemical cycles.

• Geomatics is the filed of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering of geographic information, or spatially referenced information. A digital elevation model ( DEM) is a Digital representation of ground Surface Topography or Terrain. Geomatics is the discipline of gathering storing processing and delivery of geographic information or spatially referenced information Geomatrics includes geodesy (scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, its gravitational field, and other geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, oceanic tides, and polar motion) and G.I.S. (a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated attributes which are spatially referenced to the earth) and remote sensing (the short or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s) that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object). Remote sensing is the small or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s that is not in physical

• Environmental geography is a branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil Salt affected soils are caused by excess accumulation of salts typically most pronounced at the soil surface Environmental geography is the branch of Geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world The branch bridges the divide between human and physical geography and thus requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment. Although the branch was previously more visible in research than at present with theories such as environmental determinism linking society with the environment. Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism, is the view that the physical environment rather than social conditions It has largely become the domain of the study of environmental management or anthropogenic influences on the environment and vice a versa.

Physical geography literature

Physical geography and Earth Science journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most journals cover a specific field and publish the research within that field, however unlike human geographers, physical geographers tend to publish in inter-disciplinary journals rather than predominantly geography journal; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Academic publishing describes the subfield of Publishing which distributes academic Research and Scholarship. Additionally, textbooks books and magazines on geography communicate research to laypeople, although these tend to focus on environmental issues or cultural dilemmas. This is a list of environmental issues that are due to human activity Examples of journals that publish articles from physical geographers are:

Earth Surface Processes and Landforms Journal of Biogeography Journal of Quaternary Science Geomorphology

Polar Research The Professional Geographer Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers

Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Climatic Change Earth Interactions

Journal of Climate Geophysical Research Letters Journal of Hydrometeorology GeoJournal

List of notable physical geographers

Main article: List of geographers

• Eratosthenes (276BC - 194BC) - calculated the size of the Earth. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms is the journal of the British Society for Geomorphology (BSG, formerly the British Geomorphological Research Group (BGRG The Journal of Biogeography (Blackwell Publishing first published in 1974 is the leading international Scientific journal in the subject of Biogeography The Journal of Quaternary science is a journal published on behalf of the Quaternary Research Association Polar Research is a journal of the Norwegian Polar Institute Norway 's central institution for research on the Polar regions. The Professional Geographer was originally a journal of the American Society of Professional Geographers before it became a journal of the Association of American Geographers Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers continues transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers and is a journal of the Royal Geographical Society Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society is a publication of the American Meteorological Society. Climatic Change is a journal published by Springer Climatic Change is dedicated to the totality of the problem of climatic variability and change - its descriptions causes implications Earth Interactions is a publication of the American Meteorological Society, American Geophysical Union, and Association of American Geographers Journal of Climate is a publication of the American Meteorological Society. Geophysical Research Letters is a publication of the American Geophysical Union. Journal of Hydrometeorology is a publication of the American Meteorological Society. GeoJournal is a Peer-reviewed international academic journal on all aspects of Geography founded in 1980 This list of Geographers is presented in English alphabetical Transliteration order (by Surnames. (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and
• Ptolemy (c. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca 90–c. 168) - compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia. The Geographia or Geography is Ptolemy 's main work besides the Almagest.
• Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) - innovative cartographer produced the mercator projection
• Alexander Von Humboldt (1769–1859) - Considered Father of modern geography, published the Kosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography. A separate article is about the mathematician Nicholas Mercator. The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in 1569 (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist
• Arnold Henry Guyot (1807-1884) - noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow. Arnold Henry Guyot ( September 28, 1807 – February 8, 1884) Swiss - American Geologist and Geographer
• Louis Agassiz (1807 - 1873) - Author of glacial theory which disputed steady cooling earth. Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz ( May 28 1807 — December 14 1873) was a Swiss - American Zoologist, Glaciologist
• Alfred Russel Wallace - founder of modern biogeography and the Wallace line
• Walther Penck (1888 -1923) - proponent of the cycle of erosion and that process of uplift and denudation occur simultaneously. Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer The Wallace Line (or Wallace's Line) is a boundary that separates the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australia. Walther Penck (August 30 1888 &ndash September 29 1923 was an Austrian geographer, born in Vienna as son of geographer Albrecht Penck. The cycle of erosion was a model for stream erosion and landscape development proposed by William Morris Davis in the late 1800s Denudation is the process by which the removal of material through means of Erosion and Weathering, leads to a reduction of elevation and relief in landforms and
• William Morris Davis (1850-1934) - father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion theory. William Morris Davis ( February 12 1850 - February 5 1934) was an American Geographer, Geologist, and
• Sir Ernest Shackleton (1874 - 1994) - Antarctic explorer and Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
• Robert E. Horton (1875 - 1945) - founder of modern hydrology and concepts such as infiltration capacity and overland flow. Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, CVO, OBE, (15 February 1874 – 5 January 1922 was an Anglo-Irish explorer who was one of the principal figures of the period The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration (1895–1917 was a period of time at the beginning of the 20th century when explorers set out for the Antarctic. Robert Elmer Horton ( May 18, 1875 - April 22, 1945) was an American ecologist and soil scientist, considered Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the Soil. Surface runoff is a term used to describe when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess Water, from Rain, Snowmelt, or other sources flows
• J Harlen Bretz (1882 - 1981) - pioneer of catastrophic floods in shaping the landscape and Bretz floods. J Harlen Bretz ( September 2, 1882 – February 3, 1981) was an American geologist, best known for his research that led The Missoula Floods (also known as the Spokane Floods or the Bretz Floods) refer to the cataclysmic Floods that swept periodically across eastern Washington
• Willi Dansgaard (1922) - Palaeoclimatologist and quaternary scientist, instrumental in the use of oxygen isotope dating and co-founder of Dansgaard-Oeschger event. Willi Dansgaard (born 1922 is a Danish Paleoclimatologist. He is Professor Emeritus of Geophysics at the University of Copenhagen and a member of the Dansgaard - Oeschger events are rapid climate fluctuations occurring every ≈1470 (± 532 years throughout the Last glacial period.
• Hans Oeschger (1927 - 1998) - Palaeoclimatologist and pioneer in ice core research also co-founder of Dansgaard-Orschger events. Professor Hans Oeschger (1927 – 1998 was the founder of the Division of Climate and Environmental Physics at the Physics Institute of the University of Bern in 1963 and director
• Richard Chorley (1927 - 2002) - instrumental in bringing systems theory into geography and a key player in the quantitative revolution. Richard John Chorley ( 4 September 1927 - 12 May 2002) was a leading figure in the late 20th century for his work in quantitative geography The quantitative revolution was one of the four major turning points in the history of Geography (the other three being Regional geography, Environmental
• Sir Nicholas Shackleton (1937 - 2006) - demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun. Sir Nicholas John Shackleton FRS ( 23 June 1937 — 24 January 2006) was a British Geologist and Climatologist
• Stefan Rahmstorf (b 1960) - Professor of abrupt climate changes and author on theories of thermohaline dynamics. Stefan Rahmstorf (born February 22, 1960) is a German Oceanographer and Climatologist.

See also

• Ecology
• Environmental science
• Environmental studies
• Geostatistics
• Weathering
• Physiographic regions of the world

Further reading

• Smithson, Peter; et al (2002). Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Environmental studies is the systematic study of human interaction with their environment Geostatistics evolved in Mineral exploration and mining of Minerals Ores and Coals It is currently applied in disciplines such as Petroleum Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, Soils and their Minerals through direct contact with the planet's Atmosphere. The physiographic regions of the world are a means of defining the Earth's landforms into distinct regions based upon Nevin Fenneman 's classic three-tiered approach of divisions Fundamentals of the Physical Environment. Routledge, London.  
• Holden, Joseph (2004). Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment. Prentice-Hall, London.  
• Summerfield, Mike (1991). Global Geomorphology. Longman , London.  
• Wainwright, John; Mulligan, M. (2003). Environmental Modelling: Finding Simplicity in Complexity. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, London.  
• Inkpen, Robert (2004). Science, Philosophy and Physical Geography. Routledge, London.  

External links

• Physiography by T.X. Huxley, 1878, full text, physical geography of the Thames River Basin
• Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, by M. Pidwirny, 2006, full text
• Physical Geography for Students and Teachers, UK National Grid For Learning

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