Photovoltaic 'tree' in Styria, Austria

Renewable energy
Biofuels Biomass Geothermal Hydro power Solar power Tidal power Wave power Wind power

Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is a technology that converts light directly into electricity. Styria (Steiermark is a state or Bundesland, located in the southeast of Austria. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Wave power refers to the Energy of Ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work — including Electricity generation, Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Photovoltaics is also the field of study relating to this technology and there are many research institutes devoted to work on photovoltaics. ^[1][2] Due to the growing need for solar energy, the manufacture of solar cells and solar photovoltaic array has expanded dramatically in recent years. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect. A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of Photovoltaic modules which are in turn made of multiple interconnected Solar cells The cells convert ^[3][4][5] Photovoltaic production has been doubling every two years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year since 2002, making it the world’s fastest-growing energy technology. At the end of 2007, according to preliminary data, cumulative global production was 12,400 megawatts. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. ^[6] Roughly 90% of this generating capacity consists of grid-tied electrical systems. A grid-tied electrical system, also called Tied to grid or Grid tie system is a semi-autonomous electrical generation or Grid energy storage system which links to the mains Such installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)^[7] or built into the roof or walls of a building, known as Building Integrated Photovoltaic or BIPV for short. ^[8] Financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity and net metering, have supported solar PV installations in many countries including Germany, Japan, and the United States. A Feed-in Tariff (FiT FiL Feed-in Law solar premium or Renewable Tariff) is an incentive structure to encourage the adoption of Renewable energy through government Legislation Net metering is an Electricity policy for Consumers who own generally small Renewable energy facilities such as wind or Solar power Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[9]

Overview

Photovoltaic cells produce electricity directly from sunlight

Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas solar panels are normally propped up at an angle and receive more energy per unit area. The small black dots show the area of solar panels needed to generate all of the worlds energy using 8% eff. PVs.

Map of solar electricity potential in Europe

Photovoltaics is best known as a method for generating solar power by using solar cells packaged in photovoltaic modules, often electrically connected in multiples as solar photovoltaic arrays to convert energy from the sun into electricity. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect. In the field of Photovoltaics, a photovoltaic module is a packaged interconnected assembly of photovoltaic cells also known as Solar cells An installation of A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of Photovoltaic modules which are in turn made of multiple interconnected Solar cells The cells convert The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. To explain the photovoltaic solar panel more simply, photons from sunlight knock electrons into a higher state of energy, creating electricity.

Photovoltaics can refer to the field of study relating to this technology, and the term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. A photodiode is a type of Photodetector capable of converting Light into either current or Voltage, depending upon the mode of operation Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.

Solar cells produce direct current electricity from light, which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. Direct current ( DC) is the unidirectional flow of Electric charge. See also Rechargeable electricity storage system A rechargeable battery, also known as a storage battery, is a group of two or more secondary The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. A spacecraft is a Vehicle or machine designed for Spaceflight. In the field of Photovoltaics, a photovoltaic module is a packaged interconnected assembly of photovoltaic cells also known as Solar cells An installation of In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. An inverter is an electrical or electro-mechanical device that converts Direct current (DC to Alternating current (AC the resulting AC can be at any required voltage There is a smaller market for off grid power for remote dwellings, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines. Remote sensing is the small or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s that is not in physical Cathodic protection ( CP) is a technique to control the Corrosion of a metal surface by making it work as a Cathode of an Electrochemical Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe.

Cells require protection from the environment and are packaged usually behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. In the field of Photovoltaics, a photovoltaic module is a packaged interconnected assembly of photovoltaic cells also known as Solar cells An installation of A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in arrays. Although the selling price of modules is still too high to compete with grid electricity in most places, significant financial incentives in Japan and then Germany triggered a huge growth in demand, followed quickly by production.

Current development

The most important issue with solar panels is capital cost (installation and materials). Capital costs are costs incurred on the purchase of land, Buildings Construction and equipment to be used in the production of goods or the rendering Newer alternatives to standard crystalline silicon modules including casting wafers instead of sawing,^[10] thin film (CdTe^[11] CIGS,^[12] amorphous Si,^[13] microcrystalline Si), concentrator modules, 'Sliver' cells, and continuous printing processes. Professor Andrew Blakers, Director of the Australian National University Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, is involved with the development Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use and buy more — as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop in the years to come. In Economics, returns to scale and Economies of scale are related terms that describe what happens as the scale of production As of early 2006, the average cost per installed watt for a residential sized system was about USD 6. 50 to USD 7. 50, including panels, inverters, mounts, and electrical items. ^[14] In 2007 investors began offering free solar panel installation in return for a 25 year contract to purchase electricity at a fixed price, normally set at or below current electric rates. ^[15][16]

Worldwide installed photovoltaic totals

See also: Deployment of solar power to energy grids

World solar photovoltaic (PV) market installations reached a record high of 2. See also Solar energy Deployment of solar power to energy grids depends largely upon local conditions and requirements 8 gigawatts peak (GWp) in 2007. ^[17]

The three leading countries (Germany, Japan and the USA) represent nearly 89% of the total worldwide PV installed capacity. On Wed 01 Aug 2007, word was published of construction of a production facility in China, which is projected to be one of the largest wafer factories in the world, with an annual capacity of around 1,500MW. ^[18]

Germany was the fastest growing major PV market in the world during 2006 and 2007. In 2007, over 1. 3 GWp of PV was installed. The German PV industry generates over 10,000 jobs in production, distribution and installation. By the end of 2006, nearly 88% of all solar PV installations in the EU were in grid-tied applications in Germany. The balance is off-grid (or stand alone) systems. ^[19] Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions (STC) in "Wp" (Watts peak). ^[20] The actual power output at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated," value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors. ^[21] Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity. The net capacity factor of a Power plant is the ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time and its output if it had operated at full nameplate capacity ^[22] Therefore the 2006 installed base peak output would have provided an average output of 1. 2 GW (assuming 20% × 5,862 MWp). This represented 0. 06 percent of global demand at the time. ^[23]

Produced, Installed & Total Photovoltaic Peak Power Capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2006

Country or Region Report Nat. This is a list of renewable energy topics by country. The list refers to Renewable energy in general as well as Solar power, Wind power, Geothermal Int.	Cells Made	Modules Made	off grid Δ	on grid Δ	Installed 2006	off grid Σ	on grid Σ	Total 06	Wp/capita Total	Module Price €/Wp	kW·h/kWp·yr Insolation	Feed-in Tariff EU¢/kW·h
World	2,523	2,092	97. Please update other articles as well to avoid contradiction within Wikipedia e Insolation is a measure of Solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time A Feed-in Tariff (FiT FiL Feed-in Law solar premium or Renewable Tariff) is an incentive structure to encourage the adoption of Renewable energy through government Legislation Please update other articles as well to avoid contradiction within Wikipedia e "The world " is a proper noun for the planet Earth envisioned from an Anthropocentric or Human Worldview, as a place 48	1,452	1,549	712. 7	5,150	5,862	0. 879	2. 5-11. 2	0800-2902	0-59. 3
European Union	653. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in 7	593. 9	16. 91	1,032	1,049	112. 3	3,108	3,221	6. 533	3. 0-8. 04	0800-2200	0-56. 8
Germany [24][25]	514. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. 0	341. 0	3	950	953	32	2,831	2,863	34. 78	4. 0-5. 3	1000-1300[26]	51. 8-56. 8
Japan [27][25]	919. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. 8	645. 4	1. 531	285. 1	286. 6	88. 59	1,620	1,709	13. 37	2. 96	1200-1600	Ended(2005)
United States [28][25]	201. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 6	200. 5	37	108	145	270	354	624	2. 058	2. 98	0900-2150[26]	1. 2-31. 04(CA)
Spain ?[25]	75. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. 3		9. 1	51. 4	60. 5	17. 8	100. 4	118. 2	2. 620	3. 0-4. 5	1600-2200	18. 38-44. 04
China ?[25]	380	510	15		15	73		73	0. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES 055		1300-2300
Australia [29][25]	36. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. 0	7. 6	7. 576	2. 145	9. 721	60. 54	9. 765	70. 30	3. 327	4. 5-5. 4	1450-2902[30]	0-26. 4(SA'08)
Netherlands [31][25]	18. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands 0	2. 6	0. 278	1. 243	1. 521	5. 713	46. 99	52. 71	3. 217	3. 3-4. 5	1000-1200	1. 21-9. 7
Italy [32][25]	11. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest 0	27. 0	0. 5	12	12. 5	12. 8	37. 2	50	0. 846	3. 2-3. 6	1400-2200	36. 0-49. 0
France [33][25]	33. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. 5	36. 0	1. 478	9. 412	10. 89	21. 55	22. 38	43. 93	0. 685	3. 2-5. 1	1100-2000	30. 0-55. 0
South Korea [34][25]	18. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː 0	16. 9	0. 28	20. 93	21. 21	5. 943	28. 79	34. 73	0. 716	3. 50-3. 84	1500-1600	56. 5-59. 3
Thailand ?[25]		20	6		6	30		30	0. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj 477	2. 5[24]	2200-2400
Switzerland [35][25]	0. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation 03	0. 03	0. 15	2. 5	2. 65	3. 4	26. 3	29. 7	3. 955	3. 18-3. 30	1200-2000	9. 53-50. 8
Austria ?[25]			0. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich 274	1. 29	1. 564	3. 169	22. 42	25. 59	3. 076	3. 6-4. 3	1200-2000	>0
Luxembourg ?[36]				0. Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by 042	0. 042		23. 60	23. 60	50. 54		1100-1200
Canada [37][25]	0	2. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page 35	3. 354	0. 384	3. 738	18. 98	1. 508	20. 48	0. 620	3. 76	0900-1750	0-29. 48(ON)
Mexico ?[25]			0. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. 938	0. 116	1. 054	19. 59	0. 155	19. 75	0. 185	5. 44-6. 42	1700-2600	None
United Kingdom [38][25]	1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located 9	89. 4	0. 376	3. 007	3. 383	1. 3	12. 96	14. 26	0. 232	3. 67-5. 72	0900-1300	0-11. 74(exprt)
India ?[25]	43. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country 4[39]	65	6		6	12		12	0. 010		1700-2500
Norway [40][25]	37. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional 0	0	0. 35	0. 053	0. 403	7. 54	0. 128	7. 668	1. 624	11. 2	0800-0950	None
Greece [41][36]			1. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία 049	0. 201	1. 25	5. 081	1. 613	6. 694	0. 601		1500-1900	40. 0-50. 0
Sweden [42][25]		55. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. 4	0. 302	0. 301	0. 613	4. 285	0. 555	4. 84	0. 529	3. 24-7. 02	0900-1050	None
Belgium ?[36]				2. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those 103	2. 103	0. 053	4. 108	4. 161	0. 398		1000-1200
Finland ?[36]				0. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. 064	0. 064	3. 779	0. 287	4. 066	0. 768		0800-1050
Bangladesh ?[25]			1. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially 134		1. 134	3. 6		3. 6	0. 023		1900-2100
Sri Lanka ?[25]			0. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island 65		0. 65	3. 6		3. 6	0. 187		2200-2400
Portugal ?[36]			0. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. 25	0. 227	0. 477	2. 691	0. 775	3. 466	0. 326		1600-2200
Denmark [43][25]	0	0. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe 525	0. 04	0. 21	0. 25	0. 335	2. 565	2. 9	0. 531	5. 36-8. 04	0900-1100	None
Nepal ?[25]			0. Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. 333		0. 333	2. 333		2. 333	0. 083		1900-2200
Israel [44][25]	0	0	0. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. 275		0. 275	1. 294	0. 025	1. 319	0. 183	4. 3	2200-2400	13. 13-16. 40
Cyprus ?[36]			0. Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía 08	0. 44	0. 52	0. 45	0. 526	0. 976	1. 142		1900-2200
Czech Republic ?[36]		42[25]		0. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, 241	0. 241	0. 15	0. 621	0. 771	0. 075		1100-1300
Malaysia [45]?	0	0		. For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and 00452	0. 00452		0. 486	0. 486	0. 018	4. 73	1950-2250	None
Poland ?[36]			0. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland 027	0. 087	0. 114	0. 319	0. 112	0. 431	0. 011		1100-1300
Slovenia ?[36]				0. Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west 183	0. 183	0. 098	0. 265	0. 363	0. 180		1300-1500
Ireland ?[36]						0. Ireland ( Irish: Éire, ˈeːrʲə is a country in north-western Europe. 3		0. 3	0. 070		1000-1200
Bulgaria [41]?			0. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian 12		0. 12	0. 2		0. 2	0. 026		1300-1800	38. 5-40. 0
Hungary ?[36]						0. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic 09	0. 065	0. 155	0. 015		1300-1500
Slovakia ?[36]			0. Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million 004		0. 004	0. 064		0. 064	0. 012		1200-1400
Malta ?[36]				0. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands 033	0. 033		0. 048	0. 048	0. 118		2100-2200
Lithuania ?[36]			0. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the 023		0. 023	0. 04		0. 04	0. 012		1100-1300
Estonia ?[36]			0. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region 005		0. 005	0. 008		0. 008	0. 006		1100-1200
Latvia ?[36]			0. Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. 001		0. 001	0. 006		0. 006	0. 003		1100-1300
Taiwan ?[25]	170										1700-1900
Philippines ?[25]	63										1950-2250
South Africa ?[25]		30									1950-2250
Country or Region Report Nat. REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa This is a list of renewable energy topics by country. The list refers to Renewable energy in general as well as Solar power, Wind power, Geothermal Int.	Cells Made	Modules Made	off grid Δ	on grid Δ	Installed 2006	off grid Σ	on grid Σ	Total 06	Wp/capita Total	Module Price €/Wp	kW·h/kWp·yr Insolation	Feed-in Tariff EU¢/kW·h

Notes: While National Report(s) may be cited as source(s) within an International Report, any contradictions in data are resolved by using only the most recent report's data. Please update other articles as well to avoid contradiction within Wikipedia e Insolation is a measure of Solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time A Feed-in Tariff (FiT FiL Feed-in Law solar premium or Renewable Tariff) is an incentive structure to encourage the adoption of Renewable energy through government Legislation Please update other articles as well to avoid contradiction within Wikipedia e Exchange rates represent the 2006 annual average of daily rates (OECD Main Economic Indicators June 2007)
Module Price: Lowest:2. 5 EUR/Wp^[25] (2. 83 USD/Wp^[46]) in Germany 2003. Uncited insolation data is lifted from maps dating 1991-1995.
PV Power (2007-June)^[36][47] IEA PVPS website.

Applications of PV

11 MW Serpa solar power plant in Portugal

Main article: Photovoltaic system

PV power stations

Main article: Photovoltaic power stations

The Table below provides details of some of the largest photovoltaic plants in the world. A photovoltaic system is a system which uses Solar cells to convert light into electricity Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built mainly in Europe As shown, Germany has a 10 MW photovoltaic system in Pocking, and a 12 MW plant in Arnstein, with a 40 MW power station planned for Muldentalkreis. Portugal has an 11 MW plant in Serpa and a 62 MW power station is planned for Moura. A 20 MW power plant is also planned for Beneixama, Spain. The photovoltaic power station proposed for Australia will use heliostat concentrator technology and will not come into service until 2010. It is expected to have a capacity of 154 MW when it is completed in 2013. ^[48]

* Under construction; ** Proposed

PV in buildings

Main article: Building-integrated photovoltaic

Photovoltaic solar panels on a house roof. The Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant in Spain has a generating capacity of 9

Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power,^[64] and are one of the fastest growing segments of the photovoltaic industry. ^[65] Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building, and roof tiles with integrated PV cells can now be purchased. Arrays can also be retrofitted into existing buildings; in this case they are usually fitted on top of the existing roof structure. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the building.

Where a building is at a considerable distance from the public electricity supply (or grid) - in remote or mountainous areas – PV may be the preferred possibility for generating electricity, or PV may be used together with wind, diesel generators and/or hydroelectric power. In such off-grid circumstances batteries are usually used to store the electric power. The term off the grid or off-grid refers to living in a self-sufficient manner without reliance on one or more public utilities

PV in transport

Main article: Photovoltaics in transport

PV has traditionally been used for auxiliary power in space. There are many applications of photovoltaics in transport either for motive power or as Auxiliary power units particularly where fuel maintenance emissions or noise requirements PV is rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. Recent advances in solar cell technology, however, have shown the cell's ability to administer significant hydrogen production, making it one of the top prospects for alternative energy for automobiles.

PV in standalone devices

Solar parking meter.

PV has been used for many years to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits and low power LCD displays make it possible to power a calculator for several years between battery changes, making solar calculators less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently, due to increasing cost of labour for connection of mains electricity or a regular maintenance programme. In particular, parking meters,^[66] emergency telephones,^[67] and temporary traffic signs.

Economics of PV

See also: Renewable energy commercialization

US average daily solar energy insolation received by a latitude tilt photovoltaic cell. Renewable energy commercialization involves the diffusion of three generations of technologies dating back more than 100 years

Power costs

The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of energy (LCOE) as the unit of cost. The results of a sample calculation can be found on pp. 52, 53 of the 2007 DOE report describing the plans for solar power 2007-2011 [1]. For a 10 MW plant in Phoenix, AZ, the LCOE is estimated at $0. 15 to 0. 22/kWh.

The table below is a pure mathematical calculation. It illustrates the calculated total cost in US cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system as function of the investment cost and the efficiency, assuming some accounting parameters such as cost of capital and depreciation period. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a photovoltaic installation. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kilowatt-hours expected from each installed peak kilowatt. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. Insolation is a measure of Solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.

Panels can be mounted at an angle based on latitude, which can add to total energy output. ^[68] Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. A solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun The calculated values in the table reflect the total cost in cents per kilowatt-hour produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years). Interest is a fee paid on borrowed capital Assets lent include Money, Shares, Consumer goods through Hire purchase, major assets Depreciation is a term used in Accounting, Economics and Finance to spread the cost of an Asset over the span of several years

Grid parity

Grid parity, the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than grid power, is achieved first in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as in California and Japan. Mains is the general-purpose Alternating current (AC Electric power supply (as in "I've connected the appliance to the mains" California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. ^[69] Grid parity has been reached in Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use diesel fuel to produce electricity. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum George W. Bush has set 2015 as the date for grid parity in the USA. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. ^[70][71] General Electric's Chief Engineer predicts grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by around 2015. Other companies predict an earlier date. ^[72]

In Italy, PV power has been cheaper than retail grid electricity since 2006. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. One kWh in Italy costs 21. 08  €-cents. ^[73] Italy has an average of 1,600 kWh/m² sun power per year (Sicily has even more, at 1,800 kWh/m²). Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy.

Financial incentives

Main article: PV financial incentives

The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to grow the industry even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity, to allow it to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. The political purpose of PV financial incentives is to grow the Photovoltaics industry even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity to allow it to achieve the The policies are implemented to promote national energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of CO₂ emissions.

Three incentive mechanisms are used (often in combination):

• investment subsidies: the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the system,
• Feed-in Tariffs (FIT)/Net metering: the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate. A Feed-in Tariff (FiT FiL Feed-in Law solar premium or Renewable Tariff) is an incentive structure to encourage the adoption of Renewable energy through government Legislation Net metering is an Electricity policy for Consumers who own generally small Renewable energy facilities such as wind or Solar power
• Renewable Energy Certificates ("RECs")

With investment subsidies, the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer, while with feed-in tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities' customer bases. Renewable Energy Certificates ( RECs) also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits, or Tradable Renewable Certificates ( TRC s While the investment subsidy may be simpler to administer, the main argument in favour of feed-in tariffs is the encouragement of quality. Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time, thus rewarding the overstatement of power and tolerating poor durability and maintenance. Some electric companies offer rebates to their customers, such as Austin Energy in Texas, which offers $4. Austin Energy is the Public utility providing electrical power service to a area including Austin Texas and parts of the surrounding area in Travis Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. 50/watt installed up to $13,500. ^[74]

With feed-in tariffs, the financial burden falls upon the consumer. They reward the number of kilowatt-hours produced over a long period of time, but because the rate is set by the authorities, it may result in perceived overpayment. The price paid per kilowatt-hour under a feed-in tariff exceeds the price of grid electricity. Net metering" refers to the case where the price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged.

Where price setting by supply and demand is preferred, RECs can be used. In this mechanism, a renewable energy production or consumption target is set, and the consumer or producer is obliged to purchase renewable energy from whoever provides it the most competitively. The producer is paid via an REC. In principle this system delivers the cheapest renewable energy, since the lowest bidder will win. However uncertainties about the future value of energy produced are a brake on investment in capacity, and the higher risk increases the cost of capital borrowed.

The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003. By the end of 2004, Japan led the world in installed PV capacity with over 1. 1 GW. ^[75]

In 2004, the German government introduced the first large-scale feed-in tariff system, under a law known as the 'EEG' (Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz) which resulted in explosive growth of PV installations in Germany. At the outset the FIT was over 3x the retail price or 8x the industrial price. The principle behind the German system is a 20 year flat rate contract. The value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year, in order to encourage the industry to pass on lower costs to the end users. The programme has been more successful than expected with over 1GW installed in 2006, and political pressure is mounting to decrease the tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers.

Subsequently Spain, Italy, Greece and France introduced feed-in tariffs. None have replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though, making the German incentive relatively less and less attractive compared to other countries. The French FIT offers a uniquely high premium (EUR 0. 55/kWh) for building integrated systems. California, Greece, France and Italy have 30-50% more insolation than Germany making them financially more attractive.

In 2006 California approved the 'California Solar Initiative', offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems. California Solar Initiative is a Renewable energy program in the United States The small-system FIT of $0. 39 per kWh (far less than EU countries) expires in just 5 years, and the alternate "EPBB" residential investment incentive is modest, averaging perhaps 20% of cost. All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function of the amount of PV capacity installed.

At the end of 2006, the Ontario Power Authority (Canada) began its Standard Offer Program, the first in North America for small renewable projects (10MW or less). This guarantees a fixed price of $0. 42 CDN per kWh over a period of twenty years. Unlike net metering, all the electricity produced is sold to the OPA at the SOP rate. Net metering is an Electricity policy for Consumers who own generally small Renewable energy facilities such as wind or Solar power The generator then purchases any needed electricity at the current prevailing rate (e. g. , $0. 055 per kWh). The difference should cover all the costs of installation and operation over the life of the contract.

The price per kilowatt hour or per peak kilowatt of the FIT or investment subsidies is only one of three factors that stimulate the installation of PV. The other two factors are insolation (the more sunshine, the less capital is needed for a given power output) and administrative ease of obtaining permits and contracts.

Unfortunately the complexity of approvals in California, Spain and Italy has prevented comparable growth to Germany even though the return on investment is better.

In some countries, additional incentives are offered for BIPV compared to stand alone PV.

• France + EUR 0. 25/kWh (EUR 0. 30 + 0. 25 = 0. 55/kWh total)
• Italy + EUR 0. 04-0. 09 kWh
• Germany + EUR 0. 05/kWh (facades only)

Environmental impacts

Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. This is often referred to as the energy input to output ratio. In some analysis, if the energy input to produce it is higher than the output it produces it can be considered environmentally more harmful than beneficial. Also, placement of photovoltaics affects the environment. If they are located where photosynthesizing plants would normally grow, they simply substitute one potentially renewable resource (biomass) for another. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production It should be noted, however, that the biomass cycle converts solar radiation energy to electrical energy with significantly less efficiency than photovoltaic cells alone. And if they are placed on the sides of buildings (such as in Manchester) or fences, or rooftops (as long as plants would not normally be placed there), or in the desert they are purely additive to the renewable power base. The CIS Tower is the second- tallest building in Manchester, England.

Greenhouse gases

Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are now in the range of 25-32 g/kWh and this could decrease to 15 g/kWh in the future. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared ^[76] For comparison, a combined cycle gas-fired power plant emits some 400 g/kWh and a coal-fired power plant 915 g/kWh and with carbon capture and storage some 200 g/kWh. A combined cycle is characteristic of a power producing engine or plant that employs more than one Thermodynamic cycle. Carbon capture and storage ( CCS) is an approach to mitigating Global warming based on capturing Carbon dioxide (CO2 from large Nuclear power emits 25 g/kWh on average; only wind power is better with a mere 11 g/kWh. Using renewable energy sources in manufacturing and transportation would drop photovoltaic emissions to zero.

Cadmium

One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in Cadmium telluride (CdTe) modules (CdTe is only used in a few types of PV panels). Cadmium (ˈkædmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Cd and Atomic number 48 Cadmium telluride (CdTe is a Crystalline compound formed from Cadmium and Tellurium with a zinc blende (cubic crystal structure Cadmium in its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at ftudruinsubstance is lost Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. The amount of cadmium used in thin-film PV modules is relatively small (5-10 g/m²) and with proper emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero. Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0. 3-0. 9 microgram/kWh over the whole life-cycle. In the Metric system, a microgram is 1/1000000 of a Gram (1 × 10-6 or 1/1000 of a milligram is one of the smallest units of weight/mass commonly used ^[76] Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules, and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium. Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, or Rosebud coal by Northern Pacific Railroad, is a soft brown fuel with characteristics that put it somewhere Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3. 1 microgram/kWh, lignite 6. 2, and natural gas 0. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, 2 microgram/kWh.

Note that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from burning coal, cadmium emissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated.

Energy Payback Time and Energy Returned on Energy Invested

The energy payback time is the time required to produce an amount of energy as great as what was consumed during production. See also EROEI (Energy Return on Energy Invested Net Energy Gain ( NEG) is a concept important in Energy economics, referring to a The energy payback time is determined from a life cycle analysis of energy.

Another key indicator of environmental performance, tightly related to the energy payback time, is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment. This ratio is called the energy returned on energy invested (EROEI). In Physics, Energy economics and ecological energetics, EROEI (Energy Returned on Energy Invested ERoEI, EROI (Energy Return On Of course, little is gained if it takes as much energy to produce the modules as they produce in their lifetimes. This should not be confused with the economic return on investment, which varies according to local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques.

Life-cycle analyses of the energy intensity of typical solar photovoltaic technologies in present use today find that the typical energy payback time at present is around 7 years. Mounting and installation of the system adds a further 1 to 4 years, depending upon whether it is on a roof or in an open field. This gives a total energy payback time for a PV system of 8 to 11 years. ^[77]

Future PV panels that use thin films of crystalline silicon or other materials will have greatly reduced energy payback times. Such panels will be required if cost targets for large-scale production are to be met. The expected energy payback time will be in the vicinity of two years.

Thin film technologies now have energy pay-back times in the range of 1-1. 5 years (S. Europe). ^[76] With lifetimes of such systems of at least 30 years, the EROEI is in the range of 10 to 30. They thus generate enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times (6-31 reproductions, the EROEI is a bit lower) depending on what type of material, balance of system (or BOS), and the geographic location of the system. The balance of system or BOS encompasses all components of a Photovoltaic system other than the photovoltaic panels. ^[78]

Advantages

• The 89 petawatts of sunlight reaching the earth's surface is plentiful - almost 6,000 times more - compared to the 15 terawatts of average power consumed by humans. This page lists examples of the power in Watts produced by various different sources of energy This page lists examples of the power in Watts produced by various different sources of energy ^[79] Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m²) among renewable energies. ^[79]
• Solar power is pollution free during use. Production end wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development. ^[80]
• Facilities can operate with little maintenance or intervention after initial setup.
• Solar electric generation is economically superior where grid connection or fuel transport is difficult, costly or impossible. Examples include satellites, island communities, remote locations and ocean vessels.
• When grid-connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost electricity during times of peak demand (in most climatic regions), can reduce grid loading, and can eliminate the need for local battery power for use in times of darkness and high local demand; such application is encouraged by net metering. Net metering is an Electricity policy for Consumers who own generally small Renewable energy facilities such as wind or Solar power Time-of-use net metering can be highly favorable to small photovoltaic systems.
• Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses were approximately 7. 2% in 1995). ^[81]
• Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been spent, operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies. Capital costs are costs incurred on the purchase of land, Buildings Construction and equipment to be used in the production of goods or the rendering operating cost are the recurring expenses which are related to the operation of a business or to the operation of a device component piece of equipment or facility
• Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research-money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is much room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of over 40% and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass production costs are rapidly falling. High efficiency solar cells are Solar cells specifically designed to generate Electricity in a cost effective and efficient manner ^[82]

Disadvantages

• Solar electricity is often more expensive than electricity generated by other sources.
• Solar electricity is not available at night and is less available in cloudy weather conditions. Therefore, a storage or complementary power system is required. An intermittent power source is a source of electric Power generation that may be uncontrollably Variable or more intermittent than conventional power sources
• Limited power density: Average daily insolation in the contiguous U. S. is 3-7 kW·h/m²^[83][84][85] and on average lower in Europe.
• Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to AC (using a grid tie inverter) when used in currently existing distribution grids. Direct current ( DC) is the unidirectional flow of Electric charge. An alternating current ( AC) is an Electric current whose direction reverses cyclically as opposed to Direct current, whose direction remains constant A grid-tie inverter, or a (GTI is an electrical device that allows solar power users to complement their grid power with solar power This incurs an energy loss of 4-12%. ^[86]

Photovoltaics companies

See also: List of photovoltaics companies

Major photovoltaics companies include BP Solar, Isofoton, Kyocera, Q-Cells, Sanyo, Sharp Solar, SolarWorld, SunPower, Suntech, and Yingli Green Energy. BP has been involved in Solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary BP Solar, is a solar power company with production facilities in the United States Spain India Isofoton is a solar technology manufacturer based in Malaga, Spain, and established in 1981 is a Japanese company based in Kyoto, Japan. The company was founded as in 1959 by Kazuo Inamori. Established in 1999 Q-Cells is the world's largest manufacturer of Photovoltaic (PV cells () is a major Japanese electronics company and member of the Fortune 500 whose headquarters is located in Moriguchi, Osaka prefecture, Japan Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline Solar cells and for some years has been the world's leading manufacturer of Photovoltaic (PV modules SolarWorld AG is a fast growing German company dedicated to manufacture and market Photovoltaic products worldwide by integrating all components of the SunPower Corporation designs and manufactures high-efficiency silicon Solar cells and solar panels based on an all-back-contact solar cell invented at Stanford China has over 400 Photovoltaic (PV companies and produces approximately 18% of the photovoltaic products worldwide ^[87][88][89]

BP has been involved in solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary, BP Solar, is now one of the world's largest solar power companies with production facilities in the United States, Spain, India and Australia, employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide. BP plc, previously known as British Petroleum, is the third largest global Energy company, a multinational oil company (" Oil major Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life BP has been involved in Solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary BP Solar, is a solar power company with production facilities in the United States Spain India The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. India is both densely populated and has high solar insolation providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. ^[90] BP Solar is a major worldwide manufacturer and installer of photovoltaic solar cells for electricity. Photovoltaics ( PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of Solar cells for Energy by converting Sunlight directly A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect. ^[91] The company has begun constructing two new solar photovoltaic (PV) solar cell manufacturing plants, one at its European headquarters in Tres Cantos, Madrid, and the second at its joint venture facility, Tata BP Solar, in Bangalore, India. Madrid (pronounced in English in Spanish and colloquially in Spain) is the Capital and largest city of Spain. Bangalore ( officially Bengaluru ( Kannada: ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು) is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. ^[92]

Isofoton is a Spanish company that designs and manufactures high-efficiency monocrystalline silicon cells and panels, as well as concentrated photovoltaics (CPV). Isofoton is a solar technology manufacturer based in Malaga, Spain, and established in 1981 Isofoton is present in over 60 countries, having subsidiaries in America, Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Kyocera Corporation has announced a plan to increase its solar cell production to 500 MW per year in 2010. is a Japanese company based in Kyoto, Japan. The company was founded as in 1959 by Kazuo Inamori. 500 MW is about three times the current output of 180 MW, and the company will reinforce production bases in Japan, the US, Europe and China, investing a total of about ¥30 billion through FY2010. Through this production enhancement, Kyocera looks to meet increasing demand across the world for solar cells. ^[93][94]

Nanosolar has been named Innovator of the Year for 2007 by Popular Science Magazine, in connection with its PowerSheet flexible solar film. Nanosolar is a developer of Solar power technology Based in San Jose, CA Nanosolar has developed and commercialized an extremely low-cost printable Solar Nanosolar manufactures PowerSheet by printing a solar-activated ink onto metal sheets in a low-cost, continuous process. Nanosolar is building a plant in San Jose, CA and one near Berlin, Germany. It promises to deliver solar film that will be low enough in cost to be at cost parity with power from the electrical grid. (add this company later)

Q-Cells is the world's second largest cell manufacturer, based in Thalheim, Germany. Established in 1999 Q-Cells is the world's largest manufacturer of Photovoltaic (PV cells ^[95]

Renewable Energy Corporation (REC) is based in Norway, and was established in 1996. The Renewable Energy Corporation (REC is a Solar power company with headquarters in Norway. Over a relatively short period, REC has become the world's largest producer of polysilicon and wafers for PV applications. REC is involved in all steps of the value chain, from production of solar grade silicon to wafer, cell and module production. The company has customers all over the globe and seven production plants in three different countries. It operates on three different continents and has approximately 1,100 employees. ^[96]

Sanyo Electric produced $213 million worth of solar cells at its plant in Hungary in 2006, and expects to triple its production capacity to 720,000 units in 2008. () is a major Japanese electronics company and member of the Fortune 500 whose headquarters is located in Moriguchi, Osaka prefecture, Japan ^[97]

Schott is one of the world largest producers of solar photovoltaic technologies. SCHOTT employs over 900 people and has worldwide production capacity of over 130 MW.

Sharp Solar is the world's largest photovoltaic module and cell manufacturer, which manufactures in Japan, and near Wrexham, UK. Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline Solar cells and for some years has been the world's leading manufacturer of Photovoltaic (PV modules Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells which are used for many applications, from satellites to lighthouses, and industrial applications to residential use. A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sharp began researching solar cells in 1959 with mass production first beginning in 1963. Production capacity amounted to 324 MW in 2004. ^[98][99]

SolarWorld is headquartered in Bonn, Germany, and purchased Shell Solar's crystalline silicon activities in 2006. SolarWorld AG is a fast growing German company dedicated to manufacture and market Photovoltaic products worldwide by integrating all components of the

SunPower Corporation designs and manufactures high-efficiency silicon solar cells and solar panels based on an all-back-contact "All-Black" design. SunPower Corporation designs and manufactures high-efficiency silicon Solar cells and solar panels based on an all-back-contact solar cell invented at Stanford They install them through their subsidiary PowerLight. Recent projects include the Nellis Solar Power Plant, the largest PV installation in North America. The Nellis Solar Power Plant is the largest solar Photovoltaic system in North America, and is located within Nellis Air Force Base in Clark County

Suntech Power is based in Wuxi, China, where construction of a 1 GW module plant has begun. Suntech Power ( is one of the leading solar energy company worldwide and the largest Solar module manufacturer in the world Year-end production capacity for 2007 is expected to be 480 MW. ^[100]

Yingli Green Energy is currently one of the largest manufacturers of PV products in China, with an annual production capacity of 200 megawatts of polysilicon ingots and wafers, cells and PV modules, as of July 2007. China has over 400 Photovoltaic (PV companies and produces approximately 18% of the photovoltaic products worldwide Yingli Green Energy sells PV modules under its own brand name, Yingli Solar, to PV system integrators and distributors located in various markets around the world, including Germany, Spain, China and the United States.

Photovoltaic Industry Associations

• ASIF: Spanish PV Industry Associationin Spanish only
• SER: french renewable energy Industry organizationin French only
• BSW: German Solar Industry Associationin German, with English summary
• Canadian Solar industry Association
• EPIA: European Photovoltaic Industry association
• JPEA: Japanese Photovoltaic Energy Association in Japanese only
• SEIA: Solar Energy Industries Association US trade association of solar energy manufacturers, dealers, distributors, contractors
• SEMI: Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International Global industry association with offices in Austin, Beijing, Brussels, Hsinchu, Moscow, San Jose (Calif. ), Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, Tokyo and Washington, D. C.

Photovoltaics research institutes

There are many research institutions and departments at universities around the world who are active in photovoltaics research. Countries which are particularly active include Germany, Spain, Japan, Australia, China, and the USA. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

Some universities and institutes which have a photovoltaics research department.

• The Center for Functional Nanomaterials at Brookhaven National Laboratory
• Solar Energy Laboratory at University of Southampton
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL
• Energy & Environmental Technology Application Center at the College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering SUNY at Albany
• Institut für Solare Energiesysteme ISE at the Fraunhofer Institute
• Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN)
• Imperial College London: Experimental Solid State Physics
• Instituto de Energía Solar, at Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
• Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology, at Loughborough University
• School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering at The University of New South Wales
• Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems at the Australian National University
• Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Prof. Brookhaven National Laboratory ( BNL) is a United States national laboratory located in Upton New York on Long Island, and was formally established The University of Southampton is a university situated in the city of Southampton, on the south coast of England. The University at Albany State University of New York, commonly known as the University at Albany is a Public university located in the capital of New The Fraunhofer Society (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft is a German research organization with 58 institutes spread throughout Germany each focusing on different fields of applied The School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering (SPREE is one of ten schools of engineering at the University of New South Wales. The University of New South Wales, also known as UNSW or colloquially as New South, is a University situated in Kensington, a suburb in The Australian National University, commonly abbreviated to ANU, is a public Research university situated in Canberra, Australia. Graetzel invented dye sensitized cells here
• Advanced Energy Systems at Helsinki University of Technology
• Institute of Materials Research, Salford Univrsity]
• The Centre for Electronic Devices and Materials at Sheffield Hallam University
• The Solar Caliometry Lab at Queen's University
• Institute of microtechnology at University of Neuchatel Switzerland
• University of Konstanz
• Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory
• Institute of Energy Conversion at University of Delaware
• World Alliance for Decentralized Energy
• Florida Solar Energy Center at University of Central Florida
• Linz Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS)

See also

References

External links

Publicly funded free data sources

• EU PV Technology Platform - forum for stakeholders to influence EU policy,
• PV Status Report 2006 : Comprehensive global overview by Arnulf Jager-Waldau, European Commission.
• Trends in photovoltaic applications in selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2004
• http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/download/rep_ar06.pdf IEA PVPS annual report 2006
• Information pertaining to photovoltaic solar electricity in each of the IEA PVPS member countries
• Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PVGIS)
• US Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
• DSIRE Listing of US state, local, utility, and federal incentives for renewable energy and energy efficiency.
• Energy Saving Trust (UK) - What is Solar electricity?
• Find Solar US solar estimator and solar pro locator (joint partnership with DOE).

Trade Press and commercial databases

• Solarbuzz Online news
• Photon International International PV magazine, also has local editions for Germany and Spain
• ENF Ltd PV Market Research and Industry Directory
• New York Times ongoing series on moving to a clean energy future

Others

• How Stuff Works: Solar cells.
• DIY Project "Build A Solar Panel"
• solar-is-future.com - Information about Solar Power and Photovoltaics
• Information about Solar Energy in Italy
• Live monitoring see also Google Solar Panel Project
• Real-Time Performance Diagnostics
• Lu, Boi (2003). Power Consumption of a Home. The Physics Factbook.
• Photovoltaics
• Energy Atlas of the West
• World's largest photovoltaic power plants
• World’s largest solar power plant being built in eastern Germany
• Global Solar Completed 1.4 MW Solar Power Station; Signs Agreement to Enlarge System to 2.4 MW
• Online calculation
• Plastic solar panels reach 6% efficiency
• European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference