The Philippists formed a party in early Lutheranism. Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Their opponents were called Gnesio-Lutherans.
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Before Luther's Death
Philippists was the designation usually applied in the latter half of the sixteenth century to the followers of Philipp Melanchthon. Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian It probably originated among the opposite or Flacian party, and was applied at first to the theologians of the universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, who were all adherents of Melanchthon's distinctive views, especially those in which he approximated to Roman Catholic doctrine on the subject of free will and the value of good works, and to the Swiss Reformers' on the Lord's Supper. Matthias Flacius Illyricus ( Latin; Croatian Matija Vlačić Ilirik, German Matthias Flach) ( March 3, 1520 Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a Town in Germany in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, on the Elbe This sort of fix restores section edit linkpoints to where they belong The question of free will In Religion, Ethics, and Philosophy, the phrase good and evil refers to the location of objects desires and Behaviors on a two-way Somewhat later it was used in Saxony to designate a distinct party organized by Melanchthon's son-in-law Caspar Peucer, with George Cracovius, Johann Stössel, and others, to work for a union of all the Protestant forces, as a means to which end they attempted to break down by this attitude the barriers which separated Lutherans and Calvinists. The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Caspar Peucer ( 6 January 1525 - 25 September 1602) was a German reformer, Physician, and Scholar Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the Melanchthon had won, by his eminent abilities as a teacher and his clear, scholastic formulation of doctrine, a large number of disciples among whom were included some of the most zealous Lutherans, such as Matthias Flacius and Tileman Hesshusen, afterward to be numbered among the vehement opponents of Philippism; both of whom formally and materially received the forms of doctrine shaped by Melanchthon. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries Matthias Flacius Illyricus ( Latin; Croatian Matija Vlačić Ilirik, German Matthias Flach) ( March 3, 1520 As long as Luther lived, the conflict with external foes and the work of building up the Evangelical Church so absorbed the Reformers that the internal differences which had already begun to show themselves were kept in the background.
Opposition to Melanchthon
But Luther was no sooner dead than the internal, as well as the external, peace of the Lutheran Church declined. Lucas Cranach the Elder ( Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 4 October 1472 &ndash 16 October 1553) was a German painter Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther It was a misfortune not only for Melanchthon but for the whole Lutheran body, that he who had formerly stood as a teacher by the side Luther, the original leader, was now forced suddenly into the position to head not only the University of Wittenberg but the entire Evangelical Church of Germany. The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg (Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg also referred to as MLU, is a public University in the cities of There was among Luther's associates, notably Nikolaus von Amsdorf, a disinclination to accept Melanchthon's leadership. Nicolaus von Amsdorf ( December 3, 1483 &ndash May 14 1565) was a German theologian and Protestant reformer When, in the the negotiations between German Protestants and Catholics that resulted in the Augsburg and Leipzig Interims, Melanchthon showed himself ready to yield and make concessions on matters adiaphora, he ruined his position with a large part of the Evangelical theologians. The Augsburg Interim was an imperial decree ordered on May 15, 1548, at the Diet of Augsburg, after Charles V Holy Roman Emperor, defeated the The Leipzig Interim was a temporary settlement of 1548 in matters of religion entered into by the Emperor Charles V with the Protestants. Adiaphoron (plural adiaphora from the Greek αδιάφορα "indifferent things" was a concept used in Stoic philosophy to indicate things An opposition party was formed in which the leadership was assumed by Flacius in view of his learning, controversial ability, and inflexible firmness. Melanchthon, on the other hand, with his faithful followers Joachim Camerarius, Georg Major, Justus Menius, Johann Pfeffinger, Paul Eber, Cruciger, Victorinus Strigel, and others saw in the self-styled genuine Lutherans nothing but a narrow and contentious class, which, ignoring the inherent teaching of Luther, sought to domineer over the church by letter and name, and in addition to assert its own ambitious self. Joachim Camerarius ( April 12, 1500 &ndash April 17, 1574) the Elder, German classical scholar was born at George Major ( April 25, 1502 &ndash November 28, 1574) was a Lutheran theologian of the Protestant Reformation. Justus Menius ( 13 December 1499 &ndash 11 August 1558) was a German Lutheran Theologian, whose name is Johann Pfeffinger ( 27 December 1493, Wasserburg am Inn &ndash 1 January 1573, in Leipzig) was a significant Theologian Paul Eber ( November 8, 1511 - December 10, 1569) German Theologian, was born at Kitzingen in Franconia On the other hand, the Philippists regarded themselves as the faithful guardians of learning over against the alleged "barbarism," and as the mean between the extremes. The genuine Lutherans also claimed to be representatives of the pure doctrine, defenders of orthodoxy, and heirs of the spirit of Martin Luther. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Personal, political, and ecclesiastical animosities widened the breach; such as the rivalry between the Ernestine branch of the Saxon house (now extruded from the electoral dignity) and the Albertine branch; the jealousy between the new Ernestine University of Jena and the electoral universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, in both of which the Philippists had the majority; and the bitter personal antagonism felt at Wittenberg for Flacius, who assailed his former teachers harshly and made all reconciliation impossible. The Ernestine duchies, also called the Saxon duchies (although also the Albertine Appanage duchies of Weissenfels, Merseburg and Zeitz Friedrich Schiller University of Jena (FSU is located in Jena, Thuringia in Germany and was renamed for the German writer Friedrich Schiller Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a Town in Germany in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, on the Elbe The University of Leipzig (Universität Leipzig located in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the oldest universities
Open Conflict
The actual conflict began with the controversy over the Interim and the question of Adiaphora in 1548 and the following years. Adiaphoron (plural adiaphora from the Greek αδιάφορα "indifferent things" was a concept used in Stoic philosophy to indicate things In the negotiations concerning the Leipsic Interim the Wittenberg theologians as well as Johann Pfeffinger and the intimate of Melanchthon, George of Anhalt, were on the side of Melanchthon, and thus drew upon themselves the violent opposition of the strict Lutherans, under the leadership of Flacius, who now severed his connection with Wittenberg. Johann Pfeffinger ( 27 December 1493, Wasserburg am Inn &ndash 1 January 1573, in Leipzig) was a significant Theologian When the Philippist Georg Major at Wittenberg and Justus Menius at Gotha put forth the proposition that good works were necessary to salvation, or as Menius preferred to say "the new obedience, the new life, is necessary to salvation," they were not only conscious of the danger that the doctrine of justification by faith alone would lead to antinomianism and moral laxity but they manifested a tendency to bring into account the necessary connection of justification and regeneration: namely, that justification as possession of forgiving grace by faith is indeed not conditioned by obedience; but also that the new life is presupposed by obedience and works springing out of the same justification. George Major ( April 25, 1502 &ndash November 28, 1574) was a Lutheran theologian of the Protestant Reformation. Justus Menius ( 13 December 1499 &ndash 11 August 1558) was a German Lutheran Theologian, whose name is Gotha is a town in Thuringia, within the central core of Germany. In Christianity, divine Grace refers to the sovereign favour of God for humankind — especially in regard to Salvation — irrespective of actions In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of Sola fide ( Latin: by Faith alone also historically known as the doctrine of justification by faith is a doctrine that distinguishes most For the term in politics describing socialist movements see Autonomism Antinomianism (from the Greek ἀντί, "against" In Christian theology, justification is God 's act of declaring or making a sinner righteous before God But neither Major nor Menius was sufficiently firm in his view to stand against the charge of denying the doctrine of justification and going over to the Roman camp, and thus they were driven back to the general proposition of justification by faith alone. The Formula of Concord closed the controversy by avoiding both extremes, but failed to offer a final solution of the question demanded by the original motive of the controversy. Formula of Concord ( 1577) ( Latin: Formula concordiae, " Harmony Concord " also the " Bergic Book " is an authoritative The synergistic controversy, breaking out about the same time, also sprang out of the ethical interest which had induced Melanchthon to enunciate the doctrine of free will in opposition to his previous predestinarianism. The question of free will Predestination (also linked with Foreknowledge) is a religious concept which involves the relationship between God and His creation After the clash in 1555 between Pfeffinger (who in his Propositiones de libero arbitrio had held closely to the formula of Melanchthon) and Amsdorf and Flacius, Strigel went deeper into the matter in 1559 and insisted that grace worked upon sinful men as upon personalities, not natural objects without a will; and that in the position that there was a spontaneous cooperation of human powers released by grace there was an actual lapse into the Roman Catholic view. The suspicions now entertained against Melanchthon and his school were quickened by the renewed outbreak of the sacramentarian controversy in 1552. Sacramentarians, the name given to those who during the Reformation controversies not only denied the Roman Catholic Transubstantiation, but also the Joachim Westphal accused Melanchthon of agreement with John Calvin, and from this time the Philippists rested under the suspicion of Crypto-Calvinism. Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg (born at Hamburg 1510 or at the beginning of 1511 died there January 16 1574) was a German " Gnesio-Lutheran John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and Crypto-Calvinism is a term for Calvinist influence in the Lutheran Church during the decades just after the death of Martin Luther (1546 The more the German Lutherans entertained a dread of the invasion of Calvinism, the more they mistrusted every announcement of a formula of the Lord's Supper after the form of Luther's doctrine yet obscure. Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the The controversy on this subject, in which Melanchthon's friend Hardenberg of Bremen was involved with Timann and then with Hesshusen, leading to his deposition in 1561, elevated the doctrine of ubiquity to an essential of Lutheran teaching. The Ubiquitarians, also called Ubiquists, were a Protestant Sect started at the Lutheran Synod of Stuttgart, 19 December The Wittenberg pronouncement on the subject prudently confined itself to Biblical expressions and forewarned itself against unnecessary disputations, which only strengthened the suspicion of unavowed sympathy with Calvin.
Lutheran Strictures
The strict Lutherans sought to strike a decisive blow at Philippism. This was apparent at the Weimar meeting of 1556 and in the negotiations of Coswig and Magdeburg in this and the following years, which showed a tendency to work not so much for the reconciliation of the contending parties as for a personal humiliation of Melanchthon. Magdeburg ( Low Saxon: Meideborg ˈmaˑɪdebɔɐx the Capital city of the Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany He, although deeply wounded, showed great restraint in his public utterances; but his followers in Leipsic and Wittenberg paid their opponents back in their own coin. The heat of partizan feeling was displayed at the Conference of Worms in 1557, where the Flacian party did not hesitate, even in the presence of Roman Catholics, to show their enmity for Melanchthon and his followers. After several well-meant attempts at pacification on the part of the Lutheran princes, the most passionate outbreak occurred in the last year of Melanchthon's life, 1559, in connection with the "Weimar Confutation" published by Duke John Frederick, in which together with the errors of Servetus, Schwenckfeld, the Antinomians, Zwingli, and others, the principal special doctrines of the Philippists (Synergism, Majorism, see Majoristic Controversy, adiaphorism) were denounced as dangerous errors and corruptions. John Frederick is the (English name of Johann Friedrich I "the Magnanimous" Elector of Saxony (1503–1554 John Frederick II Duke Michael Servetus (also Miguel Servet or Miguel Serveto; 29 September, 1511 &ndash 27 October, 1553) was a Spanish Caspar (or Kaspar Schwen(ckfeld von Ossig (1489 or 1490 &ndash December 10 1561) was a German nobleman who became a Protestant Reformer and For the term in politics describing socialist movements see Autonomism Antinomianism (from the Greek ἀντί, "against" Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 &ndash 11 October 1531 was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Adiaphoron (plural adiaphora from the Greek αδιάφορα "indifferent things" was a concept used in Stoic philosophy to indicate things It led, however, to discord among the Jena theologians themselves, since Strigel defended against Flacius Melanchthon's doctrine on sin and grace, and drew upon himself very rough treatment from the impetuous duke. But the ultimate outcome was the decline of the University of Jena, the deposition of the strict Lutheran professors and the replacing of them by Philippists. Friedrich Schiller University of Jena (FSU is located in Jena, Thuringia in Germany and was renamed for the German writer Friedrich Schiller Crypto-Calvinism is a term for Calvinist influence in the Lutheran Church during the decades just after the death of Martin Luther (1546 It seemed for the time that the Thuringian opposition to the Philippism of Electoral Saxony was broken; but with the downfall of John Frederick and the accession of his brother John William to power, the tables were turned; the Philippists at Jena were again. displaced (1568–69) by the strict Lutherans, Johann Wigand, Cölestin, Kirchner, and Hesshusen, and the Jena opposition to Wittenberg was once more organized, finding voice in the Bekenntnis von der Rechtfertigung und guten Werken of 1569. The Elector August was now very anxious to restore peace in the Saxon territories, and John William agreed to call a conference at Altenburg (Oct. 21, 1568), in which the principal representatives of Philippism were Paul Eber and Caspar Cruciger the younger, and of the other side Wigand, Cölestin, and Kirchner. Paul Eber ( November 8, 1511 - December 10, 1569) German Theologian, was born at Kitzingen in Franconia Caspar Cruciger the Younger ( March 19, 1525 - April 16, 1597) was a German Theologian. It led to no result, although it continued until the following March. The Philippists asserted the Augsburg Confession of 1540, the loci of Melanchthon of the later editions, and of the Corpus Philippicum, met by the challenge from the other side that these were an attack upon the pure teaching and authority of Luther. Both sides claimed the victory, and the Leipsic and Wittenberg Philippists issued a justification of their position in the Endlicher Bericht of 1571, with which is connected the protest of the Hessian theologians in conference at Ziegenhain in 1570 against Flacian Lutheranism and in favor of Philippism.
Downfall of the Philippists
Pure Lutheranism was now fortified in a number of local churches by Corpora doctrinæ of a strict nature, and the work for concord went on more and more definitely along the lines of eliminating Melanchthonism. The Philippists, fully alarmed, attempted not only Philippists. to consolidate in Electoral Saxony but to gain ascendency over the entire German Evangelical Church, but met their downfall first in Electoral Saxony. The conclusion of the Altenburg Colloquy prompted the elector, in Aug. , 1569, to issue orders that all the ministers in his domains should hold to the Corpus doctrinæ Philippicum, intending thus to avoid Flacian exaggerations and guard the pure original doctrine of Luther and Melanchthon in the days of their union. But the Wittenberg men interpreted it as an approval of their Philippism, especially in regard to the Lord's Supper and the person of Christ. They pacified the elector, who had become uneasy, by the Consensus Dresdensis of 1571, a cleverly worded document; and when on the death of John William, in 1574, August assumed the regency in Ernestine Saxony and began to drive out not only strict Lutheran zealots like Hesshusen and Wigand, but all who refused their subscription to the Consensus, the Philippists thought they were on the way to a victory which should give them all Germany. The Ernestine duchies, also called the Saxon duchies (although also the Albertine Appanage duchies of Weissenfels, Merseburg and Zeitz But the unquestionably Calvinistic work of Joachim Cureus, Exegesis perspicua de sacra cœna (1574), and a confidential letter of Johann Stössel which fell into the elector's hands opened his eyes. The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl The heads of the Philippist party were imprisoned and roughly handled, and the Torgau Confession of 1574 completed their downfall. By the adoption of the Formula of Concord their cause was ruined in all the territories which accepted it, although in some others it survived under the aspect of a modified Lutheranism, as in Nuremberg, or, as in Nassau, Hesse, Anhalt, and Bremen, where it became more or less definitely identified with Calvinism. Formula of Concord ( 1577) ( Latin: Formula concordiae, " Harmony Concord " also the " Bergic Book " is an authoritative Hesse (Hessen is a state of Germany with an area Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the It raised its head once more in Electoral Saxony in 1586, on the accession of Christian I. , but on his death five years later it came to a sudden and bloody end with the murder of Nikolaus Krell as a victim to this unpopular revival of Calvinism. Nikolaus Krell (c 1551 - October 9, 1601) chancellor of the Elector of Saxony, was born at Leipzig, and educated at the university Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the
Estimate of Philippism
Though it may be regretted that the moderate, pacific, and enlightened spirit of Melanchthon himself was not allowed to have more influence in the Lutheran Church, yet it can not be denied that Philippism was only something halfway to Reformed theology, while it claimed to guard the genuine religious ideas and motives of the Reformation better than the doctrine of the Formula of Concord. The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Formula of Concord ( 1577) ( Latin: Formula concordiae, " Harmony Concord " also the " Bergic Book " is an authoritative Nor must the fact be overlooked that where, after the promulgation of the Formula, Philippism still maintained its ground, it produced no results in the domain of theology which can be compared for a moment with those which proceeded from the stricter school. The latter won its victory to a great extent because it gave birth to the greater number of popularly effective writings and powerful literary personalities. Melanchthon's spirit, however, yet remained operative in the seventeenth century, even though at the end of the sixteenth his influence was greatly superseded by that of orthodox Lutherans. Lutheran Orthodoxy was an era in the history of Lutheranism, which began in 1580 from the writing of the Book of Concord and ended at the Age of Enlightenment The movement initiated by Georg Calixtus shows not only considerable affinity with its tendency, but has a direct historical connection with it through his Helmstedt teachers, especially Johann Caselius, who was a personal disciple of Melanchthon. Georgius Calixtus or Calisen ( December 14, 1586 &ndash March 19, 1656) was a German Lutheran Theologian
This article includes content derived from the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 1914, which is in the public domain. The Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge is a religious Encyclopedia (1st edition 1882-84 3rd edition 1891 new edition published in thirteen volumes The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
External links
- Philippists article in Christian Cyclopedia
- Philippism - Melanchthon and the Consequences by Jürgen Diestelmann
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