Fanning honeybee exposes Nasonov gland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive

A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" + ‘ορμόνη "hormone") is a chemical that triggers a natural behavioral response in another member of the same species. This article refers collectively to all true honey bees for the "common" domesticated honey bee see European honey bee Honey bees Nasonov is also a common Russian Surname. The Nasonov (alternatively Nasanov) pheromone is released by Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented, although many vertebrates and plants also communicate using pheromones. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae.

Background

The term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek pherein (to transport) and hormone (to stimulate). They proposed the term to describe chemical signals from conspecifics which elicit innate behaviours soon after Butenandt characterized the first such chemical, Bombykol (a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female silkworm to attract mates). Conspecificity is a concept in Biology. Two or more individual Organisms Populations or Taxa are termed conspecific if they belong Bombykol is a Pheromone released by the female Silkworm moth to attract mates ^[1]

Types

Aggregation pheromones

Produced by one or the other sex, aggregation pheromones attract individuals of both sexes.

Alarm pheromones

Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight (in aphids) or aggression (in bees) in members of the same species. Pheromones also exist in plants: certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon, resulting in tannin production in neighboring plants. Tannins are Astringent, bitter plant Polyphenols that either bind and Precipitate or shrink Proteins The astringency from the tannins is what These tannins make the plants less appetizing for the herbivore. Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell ^[2]

Epideictic pheromones

Recognized in insects, epideictic pheromones are different from territory pheromones. According to Fabre (translated from French), "Females who lay their eggs in these fruits deposit these mysterious substances in the vicinity of their clutch to signal to other females of the same species so that they will clutch elsewhere. Jean-Henri Casimir Fabre ( December 22, 1823 - October 11, 1915) was a French Entomologist and author "

Aggregation of bug nymphs

Releaser pheromones

Releaser pheromones are powerful attractant molecules that some organisms may use to attract mates from a distance of two miles or more. This type of pheromone generally elicits a rapid response but is quickly degraded. In contrast, a primer pheromone has a slower onset and a longer duration.

Primer pheromones

Primer pheromones trigger a change of developmental events.

Territorial pheromones

Laid down in the environment, territorial pheromones mark the boundaries of an organism's territory. In dogs, these hormones are present in the urine, which they deposit on landmarks serving to mark the perimeter of the claimed territory.

Trail pheromones

Trail pheromones are common in social insects. For example, ants mark their paths with these pheromones, which are non-volatile hydrocarbons. Ants are social Insects of the family Formicidae and along with the related families of Wasps and Bees belong to the order In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon.

Certain ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest with food. This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide. ^[3] As long as the food source remains, the pheromone trail will be continually renewed. The pheromone must be continually renewed because it evaporates quickly. When the supply begins to dwindle, the trailmaking ceases. In at least one species of ant, trails that no longer lead to food are also marked with a repellent pheromone. ^[4]

Sex pheromones

Sesiidae on a pheromone trap

In animals, sex pheromones indicate the availability of the female for breeding. The Sesiidae or clearwing moths are a family of the Lepidoptera in which the wings have hardly any of the normal lepidopteran scales leaving them transparent Male animals may also emit pheromones that convey information about their species and genotype. The genotype is the genetic constitution of a cell an organism or an individual (i Many insect species release sex pheromones to attract a mate, and many lepidopterans can detect a potential mate from as far away as 10 kilometers (6 mi). Lepidoptera is an order of Insect that includes Moths and butterflies. Pheromones can be used in gametes to trail the opposite sex's gametes for fertilization. A gamete (from Ancient Greek γαμέτης; translated gamete = wife gametes = husband is a cell that fuses with another gamete For soil improvement see Fertilization (soil. Pheromones are also used in the detection of oestrus in sows. Oestrus is also the biological genus name of the gadfly. The estrous cycle (also oestrous cycle; derived from Latin Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times Boar pheromones are sprayed into the sty, and those sows which exhibit sexual arousal are known to be currently available for breeding. The boar or wild boar ( Sus scrofa) is an Omnivorous, gregarious Mammal of the biological family Suidae.

Other pheromones (not yet classified)

This classification, based on the effects on behavior, remains artificial. Pheromones fill many additional functions.

• Nasonov pheromones (worker bees)
• Royal pheromones (bees)
• Calming (appeasement) pheromones (mammals)

Uses

Animals

Pheromones of the pest insect species, such as the Japanese beetle and the gypsy moth, can be used to induce many behaviors. Nasonov is also a common Russian Surname. The Nasonov (alternatively Nasanov) pheromone is released by The Japanese beetle ( Popillia japonica commonly referred to as the jitterbug is a Beetle about 1 The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, is a moth in the family Lymantriidae of Eurasian origin This facilitates trapping for monitoring purposes and population control by creating confusion, disrupting mating and preventing them from laying eggs.

In mammals and reptiles, pheromones may be detected by the vomeronasal organ, or Jacobson's organ, which lies between the nose and mouth and is the first stage of the accessory olfactory system. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia are air-breathing Cold-blooded Vertebrates that have skin covered in scales as opposed to hair or feathers The vomeronasal organ ( VNO) or Jacobson's organ, is an auxiliary Olfactory Sense organ that is found in many Animals It was The Accessory olfactory system (AOS is one of the two Olfactory systems commonly found in Vertebrates. Some pheromones in these animals are detected by regular olfactory membranes. Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell.

Humans

Few well-controlled scientific studies have ever been published suggesting the possibility of pheromones in humans. The best known case involves the reported synchronization of menstrual cycles among women based on unconscious odor cues (the McClintock effect, named after the primary investigator, Martha McClintock, of the University of Chicago). The menstrual cycle is a recurring cycle of physiologic changes that occurs in reproductive-age Females Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the The McClintock effect, also known as menstrual synchrony or the dormitory effect, is a theory that proposes that the Menstrual cycles of women who live Martha McClintock is an American Psychologist best known for her discoveries of the existence of human Pheromones and menstrual synchrony ^[5][6] This study proposes that there are two types of pheromone involved: "One, produced prior to ovulation, shortens the ovarian cycle; and the second, produced just at ovulation, lengthens the cycle". However recent studies and reviews of the of the McClintock methodology have called into question the validity of her results. ^[7]

Other studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates who are not closely related to themselves. Disassortative sexual selection is a form of Sexual selection in which one sex chooses the other in such a way that the offspring benefits from the diversity of the parental Using a brain imaging technique, Swedish researchers have shown that homosexual and heterosexual males' brains respond differently to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the homosexual men respond in the same way as heterosexual women. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the opposite sex or to a heterosexual orientation The study was expanded to include homosexual women; the results were consistent with previous findings meaning that homosexual women were not as responsive to male identified odors, but their response to female cues was similar to heterosexual males. ^[8] According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is believed to refer to "an enduring pattern of emotional romantic and/or sexual attractions to men women or both sexes ^[9]

Another study demonstrated that the smell of androstadienone, a chemical component of male sweat, maintains higher levels of cortisol in females. Androstadienone, also known as androsta-416-dien-3-one, is a chemical compound that has been described as having strong Pheromone -like activities in humans Cortisol is a Corticosteroid Hormone produced by the Adrenal gland (in the Zona fasciculata of the Adrenal cortex) The scientists suggest that the ability of this compound to influence the endocrine balance of the opposite sex makes it a human pheromonal chemosignal. The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as Hormones The endocrine system is instrumental ^[10] In 2002 a study published in the quarterly journal Physiology and Behavior showed an unnamed synthetic chemical in women's perfume appeared to increase intimate contact with men. The authors hypothesize, but do not demonstrate, that the observed behavioural differences are olfactory mediated. ^[11]

In 2006 it was shown that a second mouse receptor sub-class is found in the olfactory epithelium. Olfactory receptors expressed in the Cell membranes of Olfactory receptor neurons are responsible for the detection of Odor molecules The olfactory epithelium is a specialized epithelial tissue inside the Nasal cavity that is involved in smell. Called the trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR), some are activated by volatile amines found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone. Trace amine-associated receptors, abbreviated TAAR and previously abbreviated TAR and TA, are a class of G protein-coupled receptors identified Amines are Organic compounds and Functional groups that contain a basic Nitrogen Atom with a Lone pair. ^[12] Orthologous receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection. In Evolutionary biology, homology has come to mean any similarity between characters that is due to their shared ancestry. ^[13]

Some body spray advertisers claim that their products contain human sexual pheromones which act as an aphrodisiac. In the 1970's "copulins" were patented as products which release human pheromones, based on research on rhesus monkeys. The Rhesus Macaque ( Macaca mulatta) often called the Rhesus Monkey, is one of the best known species of Old World monkeys Adult males measure ^[14] Subsequently, androstenone, axillary sweat, and "vomodors" have been claimed to act as human pheromones. ^[15] Despite these claims, no pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed study. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are ^[14][16][15]

See also

References

Further reading

• Kohl, JV. , Atzmueller, M. , Fink, B. & Grammer, K. (2001). Human Pheromones: Integrating Neuroendocrinology and Ethology. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 22(5), 319-331. Full text
• Liberles, S. D. , Buck, L.B. (2006). Linda B Buck, PhD, (born January 29, 1947) is an American Biologist best known for her work on the Olfactory system A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. Nature, 442, 645-50.
• McClintock, M. K. (1984). Estrous synchrony: modulation of ovarian cycle length by female pheromones. Physiological Behavior, 32, 701-705.
• Wilson, E. O., Bossert, W. Edward Osborne Wilson (born June 10, 1929) is an American biologist researcher ( Sociobiology, Biodiversity) theorist ( H. (1963). Chemical communication among animals. Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 19, 673-716.
• Wyatt, Tristram D. (2003). Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48526-6.

External links

• Pherobase, the database of insect pheromones
• Male Axillary Extracts Contain Pheromones that Affect Pulsatile Secretion of Luteinizing Hormone and Mood in Women Recipients
• Sexual Orientation, in the Brain
• Review of published debate about HOW insects detect pheromones over large distances, even when the wind seems unfavourable
• Male sweat boosts women's hormone levels -- from UC Berkeley, February 2007
• The Effect of Male Sweat on Women's Hormone Levels -- from Science Daily, February 2007
• Pheromones In Male Perspiration Reduce Women's Tension, Alter Hormone Response -- from Science Daily (March 2003)