A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A pest is an organism which has characteristics that are regarded by Humans as injurious or unwanted ^[1] A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. A pest is an organism which has characteristics that are regarded by Humans as injurious or unwanted Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious Molluscs are animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca. There are around 250000 extant Species within the phylum with an estimated 70000 Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals.

Contents 1 Types of pesticides 2 Uses, benefits and drawbacks 3 History 4 Regulation 5 Environmental effects 6 Health effects 6.1 Farmers and workers 6.2 Consumers 6.3 The public 7 Continuing development 8 Alternatives 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 Books 11.2 Journal Articles 11.3 News 12 External links 12.1 General information 12.2 Pesticide regulatory authorities 12.3 Human health

Types of pesticides

There are multiple ways of classifying pesticides.

• Algicides or Algaecides for the control of algae
• Avicides for the control of birds
• Bactericides for the control of bacteria
• Fungicides for the control of fungi and oomycetes
• Herbicides for the control of weeds
• Insecticides for the control of insects - these can be Ovicides (substances that kill eggs), Larvicides (substances that kill larvae) or Adulticides (substances that kill adult insects)
• Miticides or Acaricides for the control of mites
• Molluscicides for the control of slugs and snails
• Nematicides for the control of nematodes
• Rodenticides for the control of rodents
• Virucides for the control of viruses (e. An algaecide or algicide is a substance used for killing and preventing the growth of Algae. An algaecide or algicide is a substance used for killing and preventing the growth of Algae. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms An avicide is any substance (normally a Chemical) which can be used to kill Birds Commonly used avicides include Strychnine, DRC-1339 Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. A bactericide or bacteriocide is a substance that kills bacteria and preferably nothing else The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Fungicides are Chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Oomycetes also known as Water molds (or water moulds: see spelling differences) are a group of filamentous unicellular Heterokonts physically A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. A larvicide (alternatively larvacide) is an Insecticide that is specifically targeted against the Larval life stage of an Insect. A larva ( Latin; plural larvae) is a juvenile form of Animal with indirect development, undergoing Metamorphosis (for example Miticides or acaricides are Pesticides that kill Mites Antibiotic miticides Carbamate miticides Formamidine miticides Miticides or acaricides are Pesticides that kill Mites Antibiotic miticides Carbamate miticides Formamidine miticides Mites, along with Ticks belong to the subclass Acarina (also known as Acari and the class Arachnida Mites are among the most diverse and successful Molluscicides, also known as snail baits and snail pellets, are Pesticides against Molluscs which are usually used in Agriculture or Slug is a common non-scientific word which is often applied to any Gastropod mollusk whatsoever that has a very reduced shell a small internal shell The word snail is a Common name that can be used for almost all members of the Molluscan class Gastropoda which have coiled shells in the A nematicide is a type of Chemical Pesticide used to kill Parasitic Nematodes (roundworms The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common Rodenticides are a category of Pest control Chemicals intended to kill Rodents Single feed baits are chemicals sufficiently Rodentia is an order of Mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must Antiviral drugs are a class of Medication used specifically for treating viral Infections Like Antibiotics for Bacteria, specific antivirals A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable g. H5N1)

Pesticides can also be classed as synthetic pesticides or biological pesticides (biopesticides), although the distinction can sometimes blur. Influenza A virus subtype H5[[Neuraminidase N1]], also known as A(H5N1 or simply H5N1, is a subtype of the Influenza A virus which can cause The term biopesticide is often used for microbial Biological control agents that are applied in a similar manner to chemical Pesticides.

Broad-spectrum pesticides are those that kill an array of species, while narrow-spectrum, or selective pesticides only kill a small group of species. ^[2]

A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. In Vascular plants xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue Phloem being the other Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides which poison pollen and nectar in the flowers may kill needed pollinators such as bees. Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also A pollinator is the biotic agent ( vector) that moves Pollen from the male Anthers of a Flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish Bees are flying Insects closely related to Wasps and Ants Bees are a Monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea

Most pesticides work by poisoning pests. In the context of Biology, poisons are substances that can cause damage, Illness, or Death to Organisms usually by ^[3]

Uses, benefits and drawbacks

Pesticides are used to control organisms which are considered harmful. ^[4] For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like west nile virus and malaria. Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs West Nile virus (or WNV is a Virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE antigenic complex of viruses it is found in Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Bees are flying Insects closely related to Wasps and Ants Bees are a Monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea A wasp is any Insect of the order Hymenoptera and suborder Apocrita that is neither a Bee nor Ant. Ants are social Insects of the family Formicidae and along with the related families of Wasps and Bees belong to the order Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Flea is the Common name for any of the small wingless Insects of the order Siphonaptera (some authorities use the name Aphaniptera ^[4] Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by mouldy food or diseased produce. WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds in parks and wilderness areas which may cause environmental damage. WEED (1390 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Spanish format See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms ^[5] Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses. ^[4] Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Rodentia is an order of Mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide regulatory agencies such as the EPA and PMRA.

Pesticides can save farmers money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests; in the US, farmers get an estimated four-fold return on money they spend on pesticides. ^[6] One study found that not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about 10%. ^[7]

DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochloride that has been used to fight malaria since the 1950s. DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Recent policy statements by the World Health Organization have given stronger support to this approach. ^[8] Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. is a Japanese Physician and Public health expert who is the director of the World Health Organization 's Malaria program Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT. "^[8] However, since then, an October 2007 study has linked breast cancer from exposure to DDT prior to puberty. ^[9] Scientists estimate that DDT and other chemicals in the organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945 by preventing the transmission of diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and typhus. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Sleeping sickness or human African trypanosomiasis is a Parasitic Disease of people and animals caused by Protozoa of species Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria ^[2] However, DDT use is not always effective, as resistance to DDT was identified in Africa as early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT. ^[10] A study for the World Health Organization in 2000 from Vietnam established that non-DDT malaria controls were significantly more effective than DDT use. ^[11]

In the US, about a quarter of pesticides used are used in houses, yards, parks, golf courses, and swimming pools. ^[2] About 70% of the pesticides sold in the US are used in agriculture. ^[6]

History

Since before 2500 BC, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as arsenic, mercury and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum which is derived from chrysanthemums, and rotenone which is derived from the roots of tropical vegetables. Pyrethrum refers to several Old World plants of the genus Chrysanthemum (e Chrysanthemums, often called 'mums' are a genus ( Chrysanthemum) of about 30 species of perennial Flowering plants in the family Asteraceae Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum Insecticide, Piscicide, and Pesticide. The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however ^[12]

In 1939, Paul Müller discovered that DDT was a very effective insecticide. Paul Hermann Müller also known as Pauly Mueller ( January 12, 1899 &ndash October 12, 1965) was a Swiss Chemist and Nobel DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world.

In the 1940s manufacturers began to produce large amounts of synthetic pesticides and their use became widespread. ^[13] Some sources consider the 1940s and 1950s to have been the start of the "pesticide era. "^[14] Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950 and 2. 5 million tons (2. 3 million metric tons) of industrial pesticides are now used each year. ^[12] Seventy-five percent of all pesticides in the world are used in developed countries, but use in developing countries is increasing. ^[2]

In the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing, which was a serious threat to biodiversity. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Rachel Carson wrote the best-selling book Silent Spring about biological magnification. Rachel Louise Carson (May 27 1907 – April 14 1964 was an American marine biologist and Nature writer whose writings are credited with advancing the global Silent Spring is a book written by Rachel Carson and published by Houghton Mifflin in September 1962 Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification, or biological magnification is the increase in concentration of a substance such as the Pesticide DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent malaria and other tropical diseases by killing mosquitoes and other disease-carrying insects. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs ^[15]

Regulation

In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency. ^[16] For example, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does so. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is safe to use and effective against the intended pest. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class. Toxicity Class refers to a classification system for Pesticides created by a national or international government-related or -sponsored organization

Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. A hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to Life, Health, Property or environment. Because of safety concerns some Pesticides are not available to the general public in the United States. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides. ^[16] Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.

In Canada, over 140 municipalities and the entire province of Quebec have now placed restrictions on the cosmetic use of synthetic lawn pesticides as a result of health and environmental concerns. ^[17] The Ontario provincial government promised on September 24, 2007 to also implement a province-wide ban on the cosmetic use of lawn pesticides, for protecting the public. Events 622 - Prophet Muhammad completes his hegira from Mecca to Medina. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ^[18] Medical and environmental groups support such a ban. ^[19] On April 22, 2008, the Provincial Government of Ontario announced that it will pass legislation that will prohibit, province-wide, the cosmetic use and sale of lawn and garden pesticides. Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common ^[20] The Ontario legislation would also echo Massachusetts law requiring pesticide manufacturers to reduce the toxins they use in production. ^[21] The Province of Prince Edward Island is also considering such legislation. ^[22] On April 3, 2008, the Canadian Cancer Society released opinion poll results conducted by Ipsos Reid, which established that a clear majority of residents in the provinces of British Columbia and Saskatchewan want province-wide cosmetic lawn pesticide bans, and that the majority of respondents believe that cosmetic pesticides are a threat to their health. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common

Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 to create voluntary standards of pesticide regulation for different countries. ^[16] The Code was updated in 1998 and 2002. ^[23] The FAO claims that the code has raised awareness about pesticide hazards and decreased the number of countries without restrictions on pesticide use. ^[24]

Two other efforts to improve regulation of international pesticide trade are the United Nations London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade and the United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission. The Codex Alimentarius (Latin for "food code" or "food book" is a collection of internationally recognized standards codes of practice guidelines and other recommendations The former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent exists between countries buying and selling pesticides, while the latter seeks to create uniform standards for maximum levels of pesticide residues among participating countries. ^[25] Both initiatives operate on a voluntary basis. ^[25]

Reading and following label directions is required by law in countries such as the US and in limited parts of the rest of the world.

In the US, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) was first passed in 1947, giving the United States Department of Agriculture responsibility for regulating pesticides. The Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (or FIFRA) Et seq. ^[16] In 1972, FIFRA underwent a major revision and transferred responsibility of pesticide regulation to the Environmental Protection Agency and shifted emphasis to protection of the environment and public health. ^[16]

One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful to humans. ^[26]

Environmental effects

Main article: Environmental effects of pesticides

Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Use of pesticides can have unintended effects on the environment. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water, bottom sediments, and food. ^[2] Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Inappropriate Pesticide application can lead to off-target contamination due to spray drift and "run-off" from plants causing contamination of the bystanders the Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination. Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Persistent organic pollutants ( POP s are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment

Health effects

Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use. ^[27]

The American Medical Association recommends limiting exposure to pesticides and using safer alternatives:

Particular uncertainty exists regarding the long-term effects of low-dose pesticide exposures. Current surveillance systems are inadequate to characterize potential exposure problems related either to pesticide usage or pesticide-related illnesses…Considering these data gaps, it is prudent…to limit pesticide exposures…and to use the least toxic chemical pesticide or non-chemical alternative. ^[28]

Farmers and workers

There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure. ^[29]

The World Health Organisation and the UN Environment Programme estimate that each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe poisoning from pesticides, about 18,000 of whom die. The UN Environment Programme (or UNEP) coordinates United Nations environmental activities assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies Pesticide Poisonings occur when chemicals intended to control a pest affect non-target organisms such as Humans Wildlife, or Bees Since ^[2] According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly. ^[30]

Organophosphate pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides. An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. ^[31] These are associated with acute health problems for workers that handle the chemicals, such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems. ^[32] Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,^[33][34] cancer,^[35] depression, neurological deficits,^[36][37] miscarriages, and birth defects. Dermatology (from Greek grc δέρμα derma, "skin" and grc -λογία -logia) is a branch of Medicine dealing with Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Miscarriage or spontaneous abortion is the natural or spontaneous end of a Pregnancy at a stage where the embryo or fetus is incapable of surviving generally defined A congenital disorder is a disease or disorder that is present at birth ^{[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46]} Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled ^[47][48]

According to researchers from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), licensed pesticide applicators who used chlorinated pesticides on more than 100 days in their lifetime were at greater risk of diabetes. "NIH" redirects here For other meanings of NIH see NIH (disambiguation. Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc In a paper appearing in the May, 2008, issue of the American Journal of Epidemiology, researchers said the associations between specific pesticides and incident diabetes ranged from a 20 percent to a 200 percent increase in risk. New cases of diabetes were reported by 3. 4 percent of those in the lowest pesticide use category compared with 4. 6 percent of those in the highest category. Risks were greater when users of specific pesticides were compared with applicators who never applied that chemical. ^[49][50]

Consumers

There are concerns that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to people who consume those foods. These concerns are one reason for the organic food movement. Organic foods are produced according to certain production standards, meaning they are grown without the use of conventional Pesticides artificial Fertilizers Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain pesticide residues after being washed or peeled. Pesticide residue refers to the Pesticides that may remain on or in food after they are applied to food crops Chemicals that are no longer used but which are resistant to breakdown for long periods may remain in soil and water and thus in food. ^[51]

The United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission has recommended international standards for Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs), for individual pesticides in food. The Codex Alimentarius (Latin for "food code" or "food book" is a collection of internationally recognized standards codes of practice guidelines and other recommendations Pesticide residues on Crops are monitored with reference to Maximum Residue Limits (MRL and are based on analysis of quantity of a given AI remaining ^[52]

In the EU, MRLs are set by DG-SANCO. In the US, levels of residues that remain on foods are limited to tolerance levels that are established by the US EPA and are considered safe. ^[53] The EPA sets the tolerances based on the toxicity of the pesticide and its breakdown products, the amount and frequency of pesticide application, and how much of the pesticide (i. For related pages see Aerial application, Sprayer, Spraying and Spray nozzle. e. , the residue) remains in or on food by the time it is marketed and prepared. ^[54] Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modeling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is little information on possible synergistic effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water. Synergy (from the Greek el-Latn syn-ergo, el συνεργός meaning working together is the term used to describe a situation where the final outcome ^[55]

A study published by the United States National Research Council in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet. The National Research Council (NRC of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the United States National Academy of ^[56] A study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with organic food (food grown without synthetic pesticides). An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. Organic foods are produced according to certain production standards, meaning they are grown without the use of conventional Pesticides artificial Fertilizers In this study it was found that levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet. Organophosphorus compounds are Chemical compounds containing Carbon - Phosphorus bonds. ^[57]

In the US, the National Academy of Sciences estimates that between 4,000 and 20,000 cases of cancer are caused per year by pesticide residues in food in allowable amounts. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS is a corporation in the United States whose members serve Pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science ^[2]

The Pesticide Data Program, a program started by the United States Department of Agriculture is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1991, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005:^[58]

For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data:

Fresh Fruit and Vegetables	Number of Samples Analyzed	Samples with Residues Detected	Percent of Samples with Detections	Different Pesticides Detected	Different Residues Detected	Total Residue Detections
Apples	774	727	98	33	41	2,619
Lettuce	743	657	88	47	57	1,985
Pears	741	643	87	31	35	1,309
Orange Juice	186	93	50	3	3	94

They were also able to test for multiple pesticides within a single sample and found that:

These data indicate that 29. 5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent

compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent

contained more than 1 pesticide. - page 34. ^[58]

The Environmental Working Group used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the USDA and the U. The Environmental Working Group (EWG is an Environmental organization which specializes in environmental research and advocacy in the areas of toxic chemicals S. FDA between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables. ^[59]

To reduce the amounts of pesticide residues in food, consumers can wash, peel, and cook their food; trim the fat from meat; and eat a variety of foods to avoid repeat exposure to a pesticide typically used on a given crop. ^[51] Consumers can also buy food that is grown organically, though even organic food may have traces of pesticides. ^[51]

Strawberries and tomatoes are the two crops with the most intensive use of soil fumigants. They are particularly vulnerable to several type of diseases, insects, mites, and parasitic worms. In 2003, in California alone, 3. 7 million pounds of metam sodium were used on tomatoes. In recent years other farmers have demonstrated that it is possible to produce strawberries and tomatoes without the use of harmful chemicals and in a cost effective way. ^[60]

The public

Exposure routes other than consuming food that contains residues, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public. ^[61]

The Bhopal disaster occurred when a pesticide plant released 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, intermediate chemical in the production of some pesticides. The Bhopal disaster was an Industrial disaster that occurred in the city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, resulting in the immediate deaths Units of mass There are three similar units of Mass called the ton: Long ton (simply ton in countries such as the United Methyl isocyanate (MIC is an organic compound with the molecular formula C2H3NO arranged as H3C-N=C=O The disaster immediately killed nearly 3,000 people and ultimately caused at least 15,000 deaths. ^[62]

In China, an estimated half million people are poisoned by pesticides each year, 500 of whom die. ^[63]

Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects of pesticides. ^[64] A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council. Leukemia or leukaemia (Greek leukos λευκός, "white" aima αίμα, "blood" is a Cancer of the Blood The Natural Resource Defense Council ( NRDC) is a New York City -based Non-profit, Non-partisan international environmental Advocacy ^[65] Often used for ridding school buildings of rodents, insects, pests, etc. , pesticides only work temporarily and must be re-applied. The poisons found in pesticides are not selectively harmful to just pests and in everyday school environments children (and faculty) are exposed to high levels of pesticides and cleaning materials. "No testing has ever been done specifically pertaining to threats among children"^[66]

Peer-reviewed studies now suggest neurotoxic effects on developing animals from organophosphate pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, lower birth weights, and lower cognitive scores. Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances which are called Neurotoxins alters the normal activity of the Nervous system in An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth. It has direct links with the Gestational age at which the child was born and can be estimated Cognitive tests are Assessments of the Cognitive capabilities of Humans and Animals Tests administered to Humans include various forms The EPA finished a 10 year review of the organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers. An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. The Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA of 1996 is a United States federal law. ^[67][68]

Some scientists think that exposure to pesticides in the uterus may have negative effects on a fetus that may manifest as problems such as growth and behavioral disorders or reduced resistance to pesticide toxicity later in life. The uterus (from the Latin word for womb) is the major Female reproductive organ of most Mammals including Humans One end the A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and ^[69]

A new study conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, has discovered a 70% increase in the risk of developing Parkinson's disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides. The Harvard School of Public Health is ( Colloquially HSPH) is one of the professional Graduate schools of Harvard University. Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's ^[70]

A 2008 study from Duke University found that the Parkinson's patients were 61 percent more likely to report direct pesticide application than were healthy relatives. Both insecticides and herbicides significantly increased the risk of Parkinson's disease. ^[71]

One study found that use of pesticides may be behind the finding that the rate of birth defects such as missing or very small eyes is twice as high in rural areas as in urban areas. Anophthalmia, also known as anophthalmos (Greek ανόφθαλμος "without eye" is the congenital absence of one or both Eyes Prevalence Microphthalmia (or microphthalmos) means small Eyes. Presentation In Mammals the failure of expression of a transcription factor MITF ( ^[72] Another study found no connection between eye abnormalities and pesticides. ^[72]

Pyrethrins, insecticides commonly used in common bug killers, can cause a potentially deadly condition if breathed in. ^[73]

Continuing development

Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Under United States laws pesticide misuse is the use of a Pesticide in a way that violates laws regulating their use or endangers humans or the environment many Reducing the use of pesticides and choosing less toxic pesticides may reduce risks placed on society and the environment from pesticide use. ^[5] Integrated pest management, the use of multiple approaches to control pests, is becoming widespread and has been used with success in countries such as Indonesia, China, Bangladesh, the US, Australia, and Mexico. In Agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods mechanical devices physical devices The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. ^[2] IPM attempts to recognize the more widespread impacts of an action on an ecosystem, so that natural balances are not upset. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( ^[13] New pesticides are being developed, including biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives that are thought to reduce health and environmental risks. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides.

Pesticides can be created that are targeted to a specific pest's life cycle, which can be more environmentally-friendly. ^[74] For example, potato cyst nematodes emerge from their protective cysts in response to a chemical excreted by potatoes; they feed on the potatoes and damage the crop. Potato root nematodes or potato cyst nematodes (PCN are 1-mm long roundworms belonging to the genus Globodera, which comprises around 12 species ^[74] A similar chemical can be applied to fields early, before the potatoes are planted, causing the nematodes to emerge early and starve in the absence of potatoes. The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common ^[74]

Alternatives

Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of other organisms to kill pests, genetic engineering, and methods of interfering with insect breeding. Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct ^[2]

Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types of plants), crop rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract pests away from the real crop. Polyculture is agriculture using multiple crops in the same space in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems and avoiding large stands of single crops or Monoculture A trap crop is a plant that attracts parasitic insects away from attacking nearby crops ^[2] In the US, farmers have had success controlling insects by spraying with hot water at a cost that is about the same as pesticide spraying. ^[2]

Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another example of an alternative to pesticide use. These organisms can include natural predators or parasites of the pests. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. ^[2] Biological pesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses cause disease in the pest species can also be used. Recent efforts to reduce the impact of broad-spectrum chemical Pesticides have brought biological insecticides back into vogue An entomopathogenic fungus is a Fungus that can act as a Parasite of Insects and kills or seriously disables them The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable ^[2]

Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males of the target species and releasing them, so that they mate with females but do not produce offspring. Sterile insect technique is a method of Biological control, whereby millions of sterile Insects are released In Biology, mating is the pairing of opposite- Sex or hermaphroditic Organisms for copulation and in Social animals also to raise their ^[2] This technique was first used on the screwworm fly in 1958 and has since been used with the medfly, the tsetse fly,^[75] and the gypsy moth. Cochliomyia hominivorax, the New World screw-worm fly, or screw-worm for short is a species of parasitic Fly that is well known Ceratitis capitata, the Mediterranean fruit fly, or medfly for short is a species of Fruit fly capable of wreaking extensive damage to This page is about the insect For other meanings see Tsetse (disambiguation. The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, is a moth in the family Lymantriidae of Eurasian origin ^[76] However, this can be a costly, time consuming approach that only works on some types of insects. ^[2]

In India, traditional pest control methods include using Panchakavya, the "mixture of five products. Panchakavya is a concoction prepared by mixing five products of Cow. " The method has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity due in part to use by the organic farming community.

Some evidence shows that alternatives to pesticides can be equally effective as the use of chemicals. For example, Sweden has halved its use of pesticides with hardly any reduction in crops. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. ^[2] In Indonesia, farmers have reduced pesticide use on rice fields by 65% and experienced a 15% crop increase. ^[2]

See also

References

Further reading

Part of a series on Horticulture and Gardening
Gardening
Gardening • Garden • Botanical garden • Arboretum • Botany • Plant
Horticulture
Horticulture • Agriculture • Urban agriculture • City farm • Organic farming • Herb farm • Hobby farm • Intercropping • Farm
Customs
Harvest festival • Thanksgiving • History of agriculture
Plant protection
Phytopathology • Pesticide • Weed control This box: view • talk • edit

Books

• Greene, Stanley A. Gardening is the practice of growing Plants for their attractive flowers or foliage and Vegetables or Fruits for consumption A garden is a planned space usually outdoors set aside for the display cultivation and enjoyment of Plants and other forms of Nature. Botanical gardens grow a wide variety of Plants primarily to categorize and document for scientific purposes An arboretum is a collection of trees Related collections include a fruticetum (from the Latin frutex, meaning shrub and a viticetum a collection of vines Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Urban Agriculture and Peri-Urban Agriculture is the practice of cultivating processing and distributing food in or around (peri-urban a village town or city City farms are community-run projects in Urban areas which involve people working with animals and plants Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation A herb farm is usually a Farm where Herbs are grown for market sale A hobby farm is a Smallholding or small farm that is maintained without expectation of being a primary source of income Intercropping is the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time (Andrews & Kassam 1976 A farm is an area of land including various structures devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food ( Produce, Grains, or Livestock A harvest festival is an annual celebration which occurs around the time of the main harvest of a given region Thanksgiving, or Thanksgiving Day, is a traditional North American Holiday, which is a form of harvest festival. Agriculture was developed at least 10000 years ago and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation Weed control is the botanical component of Pest control, stopping weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to Domesticated Plants ; Pohanish, Richard P. (editors) (2005). Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals. SciTech Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-8155-1516-2.  
• Hamilton, Denis; Crossley, Stephen (editors) (2004). Pesticide residues in food and drinking water. J. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-48991-3.  
• Hond, Frank et. al. (2003). Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives. Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-05659-2.  
• Kegley, Susan E. ; Wise, Laura J. (1998). Pesticides in fruits and vegetables. University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-46-6.  
• Levine, Marvin J. (2007). Pesticides: A Toxic Time Bomb in our Midst. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-99127-2.  
• Ware, George W. ; Whitacre, David M. (2004). Pesticide Book. Meister Publishing Co. ISBN 1-892829-11-8.  
• Watson, David H. (editor) (2004). Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 1-85573-734-5.  

Journal Articles

• Walter A. Alarcon, et. al. (July 2005). "Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools". Journal of the American Medical Association 294: 455–465.  
• Tomlin, C. D. S. (Ed. ) 2000 The Pesticide Manual 12th Edition, British Crop Protection Council, Bracknell, UK, 1250 pp.

News

• Janofsky, M. "E.P.A. recommends limits on thousands of uses of pesticides", New York Times, August 4, 2006. Retrieved on 2006-08-24. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River  
• Janofsky, M. "Unions say E.P.A. bends to political pressure", New York Times, 2006-08-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 338 BC - A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Retrieved on 2007-10-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated  
• Kaiser, J (June 2005). "Endocrine disrupters trigger fertility problems in multiple generations". Science 308: 1391-1392.  
• Kaiser, J (May 2005). "House would foil human pesticide studies". Science 308: 1234.  
• Webster, P (Dec 2004). "Study finds heavy contamination across vast Russian Arctic". Science 306: 1875. PMID 15591171.  
• Stokstad, E (Nov 2004). "EPA criticized for study of child pesticide exposure". Science 306: 961. PMID 15528421.  
• Helmuth, L (Nov 2000). "Pesticide causes Parkinson's in rats". Science 290: 1068. doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1068a. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
• Adam, D (Nov 2000). "Pesticide use linked to Parkinson's disease". Nature 408: 125.  

External links

General information

• International Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)
• PAN-UK. Working to eliminate the dangers of toxic pesticides, our exposure to them, and their presence in the environment where we live and work.
• National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC) Information about pesticide-related topics.
• Beyond Pesticides, founded in 1981 as the National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides - Source of information on pesticide hazards, least-toxic practices and products, and on pesticide issues. Website has Daily News Blog relating to pesticides.
• Cdms. net. All Supporting Agro-Chemical Manufacturers a list of EPA pesticide labels for pesticides by trade name.
• Compendium of Pesticide Common Names: Classified Lists of Pesticides Lists of pesticide names by type.
• Pesticide Action Network. PAN Pesticides Database. Compilation of multiple regulatory databases into a web-accessible form.
• Croplifeamerica. org, US trade association representing the crop protection and pest control industry
• US Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. 1997 pesticide use map Shows estimates of pesticide type and intensity of pesticide use by business of mass food production.

Pesticide regulatory authorities

• US EPA
• UK Pesticides Safety Directorate
• European Commission pesticide information

Human health

• Centers for Disease Control Pesticides. Compiled information on health effects of pesticides.
• NIH encyclopedia pages with emergency treatment of Insecticide exposure
• Durango Software - Provides risk assessment tools for pesticide use
• Environmental Working Group (July 14, 2005), The Pollution in Newborns.
• Pesticide Residues in Food - Data and Summary reports from the USDA on pesticide residues in food sold in the United States.
• Pesticides: Use, Effects, and Alternatives to Pesticides in Schools (pdf) from the United States General Accounting Office
• Pesticides and Health -- Greenpeace China

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