Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, animals, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell. An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution.

Bottles of some notable commercial perfumes: (clockwise from top left) Bois de Violette, Serge Lutens, 1992; Angel, Thierry Mugler, 1994; Shalimar, Guerlain, 1925; Beyond Paradise, Estée Lauder, 2003; No. Serge Lutens (born 14 March 1942, in Lille, France) is a French Photographer, Filmmaker, Hair stylist, Thierry Mugler, born 1948 in Strasbourg France is a Fashion designer, photographer, and creator of a Fashion design company of the same Guerlain is among the oldest Perfume houses in the world It has a large and loyal customer following and is held in high esteem in the perfume industry 5, Chanel, 1921 (Pre-1950 bottle); Cabochard, Parfums Grès, 1959 (original bottle); Bellodgia, Caron, 1927; Arpège, Lanvin, 1927 (original bottle); Nombre Noir, Shiseido, 1981; Mitsouko, Guerlain, 1919; Pour Un Homme, Caron, 1934. Chanel SA ʃəˈnɛɫ) is a Parisian fashion house created by Coco Chanel. Grès was a French Haute couture fashion house Parfums Grès is the associated perfume house which still exists and is now based in Switzerland. Parfums Caron is a French perfume house established by Ernest Daltroff (1867-1941 in 1904 is a major Japanese Hair care and Cosmetics producer and the oldest cosmetics company in the world Guerlain is among the oldest Perfume houses in the world It has a large and loyal customer following and is held in high esteem in the perfume industry Parfums Caron is a French perfume house established by Ernest Daltroff (1867-1941 in 1904

History

Main article: History of perfume

Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume

Etruscan perfume vase shaped like a female head

The word perfume used today derives from the Latin "per fumum", meaning through smoke. The history of perfume began in antiquity The word Perfume used today to describe scented mixtures derives from the Latin " per fumus " meaning Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and Persians. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. Incense is composed of Aromatic biotic materials It releases fragrant Smoke when burned

The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a person named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia. In the History of chemistry, a person named Tapputi is considered to be the world’s first Chemist, a Perfume -maker mentioned in a Cuneiform ^[1]

Recently, archaeologists have uncovered what is believed to be the world's oldest perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. Pyrgos is officially comprised of two villages the larger Kato Pyrgos (Κάτω Πύργος and the smaller Pano Pyrgos (Πάνω Πύργος Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. The perfumes were discovered in an ancient perfumery factory. At least 60 distilling stills, mixing bowls, funnels and perfume bottles were found in the 43,000-square-foot (4,000 m²) factory. ^[2] In ancient times people used herbs and spices, like almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, bergamot, but not flowers. "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive The Almond ( Prunus dulcis, syn Prunus amygdalus Batsch Amygdalus communis L Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum) also commonly called cilantro, is an annual Herb in the family Apiaceae. The Myrtle ( Myrtus) is a genus of one or two species of Flowering plants in the family Myrtaceae, native to southern Europe and north A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also ^[3]

In Arabia Al-Kindi wrote in 9th century a book on perfumes which he named ‘Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations’. It contained more than hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described one hundred and seven methods and recipes for perfume-making, and even the perfume making equipment, like the alembic, still bears its Arabic name^[4].

The Persian, Muslim doctor and chemist Avicenna (also known as Ibn Sina) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, (the procedure most commonly used today). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtu res of oil and crushed herbs, or petals which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties

Knowledge of perfumery came to Europe as early as the 14th century due partially to the spread of Islam. But it was the Hungarians who ultimately introduced the first modern perfume. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. Made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution, the first modern perfume was made in 1370 at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary and was known throughout Europe as Hungary Water. Elisabeth of Kujavia (1305 &ndash 29 December, 1380) was Queen consort of Hungary and regent of Poland. Hungary water (sometimes called "the Queen of Hungary's Water" was the first (European alcohol-based Perfume, claimed to date to about the late 1300s The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by Catherine de' Medici's personal perfumer, Rene le Florentin. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Catherine de' Medici (April 13 1519 &ndash January 5 1589 was born in Florence, Italy as Caterina Maria Romula di Lorenzo de' Medici. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be stolen en route. France quickly became the European center of perfume and cosmetic manufacture. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. During the Renaissance period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Grasse ( Provençal Occitan: Grassa in classical norm or Grasso in Mistralian norm is a town and Episcopal see in southeastern This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Even today, France remains the centre of the European perfume design and trade. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce.

Concentration

Perfume oil is necessarily diluted with a solvent because undiluted oils (natural or synthetic) contain high concentrations of chemical components (natural or otherwise) that will likely result in allergic reactions and possibly injury when applied directly to skin or clothing. As well, the scent in pure perfume oils are far too concentrated to smell pleasant. By far the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling lipids such as jojoba, fractionated coconut oil or wax. Jojoba ( Simmondsia chinensis) pronounced "hō- hō' -bə" is a Shrub native to the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts Coconut oil, also known as coconut butter, is a tropical oil with many applications Wax has traditionally referred to a substance that is secreted by Bees ( Beeswax) and used by them in constructing their The concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil is as follows:

• Perfume extract (Extrait): 15-30% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds
• Eau de Parfum (EdP): 10-15% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds
• Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-20% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds
• Eau de Cologne (EdC): 2-5% aromatic compounds

As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent created. Cologne or Eau de Cologne is a Toiletry, a Perfume in a style of that from Cologne, Germany. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in Eau de Parfum (EdP) dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in Eau de Toilette (EdT) from within the same range, the actual amounts can vary between perfume houses. An EdT from one house may be stronger than an EdP from another.

Men's fragrances are rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. As well, women's fragrances are rarely sold in EdC concentrations. Although this gender specific naming trend is common for assigning fragrance concentrations, it does not directly have anything to do with whether a fragrance was intended for men or women.

Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. In some cases, words such as "extrême", "intense" or "concentrée" appended to fragrance names might indicate completely different fragrances that relates only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this would be Chanel‘s Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée.

Eau de Cologne (EdC) is originally a specific fragrance and trademark of a citrus nature and weak in concentration made in Cologne, Germany. Cologne or Eau de Cologne is a Toiletry, a Perfume in a style of that from Cologne, Germany. A trademark or trade mark, represented by the symbols ™ and ®, or mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. However outside of Germany the term has become generic for a weakly concentrated perfume.

Describing a perfume

Shelves of perfumes

The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. A trade secret is a Formula, practice, Process, Design, instrument, Pattern, or compilation of Information which Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a useful guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts ^[5].

The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the family it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent^[6][7]

Fragrance notes

Main article: Note (perfumery)

Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of 'notes', making the harmonious chord of the scent. Notes in Perfumery are descriptors in of scents that can be sensed upon the application of a perfume This article describes musical chords in traditional Western styles The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.

• Top notes: The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Also called the head notes.
• Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to when the top notes dissipate. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. They are also called the "heart notes".
• Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application.

Manufactures of perfumes usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms.

Olfactive families

Grouping perfumes, like any taxonomy, can never be a completely objective or final process. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower", however subtle, will have undertones of other aromatics. "True" unitary scents can rarely be found in perfumes as it requires the perfume to exist only as a singular aromatic material.

Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific characteristic of that perfume.

Traditional

The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:

• Single Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a soliflore. (e. g. Serge Lutens' Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose. Serge Lutens (born 14 March 1942, in Lille, France) is a French Photographer, Filmmaker, Hair stylist, )
• Floral Bouquet: Containing the combination of several flowers in a scent.
• Ambery: A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, flowers and woods. Ambergris ( Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, ambergrease, or grey Amber) is a solid waxy flammable substance of a dull gray or blackish Labdanum is a sticky brown resin obtained from the shrubs Cistus ladanifer (western Mediterranean and Cistus creticus (eastern Mediterranean Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East. Culture The Victorian fascination with novelty resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Far East is a term often used by people in the Western world to refer to the countries of East Asia.
• Woody: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and cedar. Agarwood (or just Agar) is the Resinous Heartwood from Aquilaria trees large evergreens native to Southeast Asia. for the film industry in India see Cinema of Karnataka Sandalwood is the name for several fragrant Woods and their Essential Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. } Camphor is a waxy white or transparent solid with a strong aromatic odor
• Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Tar is a viscous black Liquid derived from the Destructive distillation of organic matter
• Chypre: Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. Chypre is a name used to describe a family (or concept) of Perfumes usually with a top note of citrus and woody base notes derived from Oak moss Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Oakmoss, also known as Evernia prunastri, is a type of Lichen used extensively in modern Perfumery. Patchouli (also patchouly or pachouli) is a bushy Herb of the mint family with erect stems reaching two or three feet (about 0 Labdanum is a sticky brown resin obtained from the shrubs Cistus ladanifer (western Mediterranean and Cistus creticus (eastern Mediterranean This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty. François Coty (born Joseph Marie François Spoturno; 3 May 1874, Ajaccio, Corsica &ndash 25 July 1934, A notable example is Mitsouko (meaning mystery in Japanese) by Guerlain. is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities Guerlain is among the oldest Perfume houses in the world It has a large and loyal customer following and is held in high esteem in the perfume industry
• Fougère: Meaning Fern in French, built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss. Fougère, meaning "fern-like" is one of the main families into which modern Perfumes are classified with the name derived from the perfume Fougère Royale A fern is any one of a group of about 20000 Species of Plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta The Lavenders Lavandula are a Genus of about 25–30 species of Flowering plants in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to the Mediterranean Coumarin is a Chemical compound ( Benzopyrone) a Toxin found in many Plants notably in high concentration in the Tonka bean, Oakmoss, also known as Evernia prunastri, is a type of Lichen used extensively in modern Perfumery. Houbigant's Fougère Royale pioneered the use of this base. Houbigant was a Perfume manufacturer founded in Paris, France in 1775 by Jean-François Houbigant of Grasse (1752-1807 originally selling gloves Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent.

Modern

Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i. e. , compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes; new categories have emerged to describe modern scents:

• Bright Floral: combining the traditional Single Floral & Floral Bouquet categories.
• Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type.
• Oceanic/Ozone: the newest category in perfume history, appearing in 1991 with Christian Dior's Dune. A very clean, modern smell leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes. Androgyny is a term derived from the Greek words ανήρ ( anér, meaning man and γυνή ( gyné, meaning woman that can refer to either of two
• Citrus or Fruity: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes due to the low tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances.
• Gourmand: scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities. These often contain notes like vanilla and tonka bean, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. The tonka bean is the Seed of Dipteryx odorata, a Legume tree in the Neotropics, of the Fabaceae family An example is Thierry Mugler's Angel. Thierry Mugler, born 1948 in Strasbourg France is a Fashion designer, photographer, and creator of a Fashion design company of the same

Fragrance wheel

Main article: Fragrance wheel

Fragrance Wheel perfume classification chart

The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The Fragrance Wheel is a Fragrance classification method developed in 1983 by Michael Edwards a consultant in the fragrance industry The method was created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the individual classes^[8].

The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody,Fougère, and Fresh, with the former four families being more "classic" while the latter consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. With the exception of the Fougère family, each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups and arranged around a wheel.

Aromatics sources

Plant sources

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Secondary metabolites are Organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development or Reproduction of Organisms Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell A pollinator is the biotic agent ( vector) that moves Pollen from the male Anthers of a Flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum) also commonly called cilantro, is an annual Herb in the family Apiaceae. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petit grain, neroli, and orange oils. An orange —specifically the sweet orange —is the Citrus fruit Citrus sinensis ( syn Neroli oil is a plant oil similar in scent to bergamot produced from the blossom of the Bitter orange tree ( Citrus aurantium var Orange oil is an Essential oil produced by Glands inside the Rind of an orange fruit.

• Bark: Commonly used barks includes cinnamon and cascarilla. Bark, also known as periderm is the outermost layer of stems and Roots of Woody plants such as Trees It overlays the Wood and consists Cinnamon ( Cinnamomum verum, synonym C zeylanicum) is a small Evergreen Tree 10–15 metres (32 Croton eluteria, known as Cascarilla, is a Plant species of the genus Croton, native to the West Indies. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds such as helional. Sassafras is a genus of three Sassafras trees grow from 15–35 m (50–120 feet tall and 70–150 cm (2 Safrole is a colorless or slightly yellow oily liquid It is typically extracted from the root-bark or the fruit of Sassafras plants in the form of Sassafras oil,
• Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also Alternate meanings See Blossom (disambiguation Blossom is a term given to the Flowers of Stone fruit trees Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, mimosa, tuberose, as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. A rose is a perennial flowering Shrub or vine of the Genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae, that contains over 100 species Jasmine or Jessamine ( Jasminum) (from Persian yasmin, ie "gift from God" via Arabic) is a Genus of Shrubs Osmanthus ( Osmanthus) is a genus of about 30 species of Flowering plants in the family Oleaceae, mostly native to warm temperate Asia (from Acacia farnesiana, commonly known as Needle Bush, is so named because of the numerous thorns distributed along its branches The tuberose ( Polianthes tuberosa) is a Perennial plant of the agave family Agavaceae, extracts of which are used as a middle note in Perfumery Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of Ylang-ylang (ˈiːlæŋˈʔiːlæŋ (ee-lang ee-lang Cananga odorata, is a small flower of the Cananga tree Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. This article is about the Spice; for other meanings see Clove (disambiguation. Orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery. Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico.
• Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. Garden strawberries are a common variety of strawberry cultivated worldwide This article is about the Cherry berry also classified as fruit for the ornamental tree See Cherry Blossom. Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. Litsea is a genus of Evergreen or Deciduous trees or shrubs belonging to the Laurel family Lauraceae. Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. Junipers are Coniferous plants in the genus Juniperus of the cypress family Cupressaceae. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of An orange —specifically the sweet orange —is the Citrus fruit Citrus sinensis ( syn The lemon ( Citrus × limon) is a hybrid in cultivated wild plants Lime is a term referring to a number of different fruits (generally Citruses, both Species and hybrids, which are typically round green to yellow Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell. The grapefruit is a subtropical Citrus Tree grown for its Fruit which was originally named the "forbidden fruit " of Barbados Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16
• Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. A twig is a small terminal Branch section that may bear leaves, Buds and sometimes the Flowers and Fruit of Plants Only The Lavenders Lavandula are a Genus of about 25–30 species of Flowering plants in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to the Mediterranean Patchouli (also patchouly or pachouli) is a bushy Herb of the mint family with erect stems reaching two or three feet (about 0 Common sage ( Salvia officinalis) is a small perennial Evergreen Subshrub, with woody stems grayish leaves and blue to purplish flowers Viola, commonly called Violets, is a Genus of Flowering plants in the family Violaceae, with around 400-500 species distributed Rosemary ( la Rosmarinus officinalis) is a woody perennial Herb with fragrant evergreen needle-like leaves. Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf. Hay is a generic term for grass or Legumes that have been cut dried and stored for use as animal feed, particularly for grazing animals like The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family
• Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. Incense is composed of Aromatic biotic materials It releases fragrant Smoke when burned Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin. Labdanum is a sticky brown resin obtained from the shrubs Cistus ladanifer (western Mediterranean and Cistus creticus (eastern Mediterranean Frankincense or olibanum ( Arabic language: لبٌان, lubbān) is an aromatic Resin obtained from trees of the genus Frankincense or olibanum ( Arabic language: لبٌان, lubbān) is an aromatic Resin obtained from trees of the genus Myrrh is a reddish-brown Resinous material the dried sap of the tree Commiphora myrrha, native to Yemen, Somalia Benzoin resin or styrax resin is a Balsamic Resin obtained from the bark of several species of trees in the genus Styrax. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. This article is about the tree For other uses of the term "pine" see Pine (disambiguation. Firs ( Abies) are a genus of between 45-55 species of Evergreen conifers in the family Pinaceae. Terpenes are a large and varied class of Hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants particularly Conifers though also by some insects such Organic synthesis is a special branch of Chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of Organic compounds via Organic reactions Organic Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers. Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty Copal is a type of Resin produced from plant or tree secretions, often taken from members of the genus Copaifera.
• Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family. ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN. In Botany, a rhizome is a horizontal stem of a Plant that is usually found underground often sending out Roots and Shoots A bulb is an underground vertical Shoot that has modified leaves (or thickened leaf bases that are used as Food Storage organs by In Botany, a rhizome is a horizontal stem of a Plant that is usually found underground often sending out Roots and Shoots This article refers to the tropical grass For the men's fragrance Vétiver see Guerlain. Ginger is commonly used as a cooking spice throughout the world
• Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise. A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored The tonka bean is the Seed of Dipteryx odorata, a Legume tree in the Neotropics, of the Fabaceae family Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum) also commonly called cilantro, is an annual Herb in the family Apiaceae. Caraway or Persian cumin ( Carum carvi) is a Biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to Europe and western Asia Cocoa is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of the cacao tree from which Chocolate is made The nutmegs Myristica are a Genus of Evergreen Trees indigenous to tropical southeast Asia and Australasia The nutmegs Myristica are a Genus of Evergreen Trees indigenous to tropical southeast Asia and Australasia The name cardamom (or cardamon is used for herbs within two genera of the Ginger family Zingiberaceae, namely Elettaria and Amomum '''Anise''' or Aniseed, less commonly anís (stressed on the second syllable ( Pimpinella anisum) is a Flowering plant in the family Apiaceae
• Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. for the film industry in India see Cinema of Karnataka Sandalwood is the name for several fragrant Woods and their Essential Agarwood (or just Agar) is the Resinous Heartwood from Aquilaria trees large evergreens native to Southeast Asia. Birch is the name of any Tree of the genus Betula ( Bé-tu-la) in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Junipers are Coniferous plants in the genus Juniperus of the cypress family Cupressaceae. This article is about the tree For other uses of the term "pine" see Pine (disambiguation. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.

Animal sources

• Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the Sperm Whale. Ambergris ( Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, ambergrease, or grey Amber) is a solid waxy flammable substance of a dull gray or blackish Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state The Sperm Whale ( Physeter macrocephalus or Physeter catodon) is the largest of all Toothed whales and largest living toothed animal Ambergris is commonly referred to as "amber" in perfumery and should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry. Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty
• Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver. Castoreum is the name given to the exudate from the castor sacs of the mature North American Beaver Castor canadensis and the European Beaver
• Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the Mongoose. Civets are small lithe-bodied mostly arboreal Mammals native to the tropics of Africa and Asia A mongoose (plural mongooses) is a member of the family Herpestidae (although also used for some members of Eupleridae) a family of small The World Society for the Protection of Animals investigated African civets caught for this purpose. The World Society for the Protection of Animals (commonly WSPA) is an international Non-profit Animal welfare organisation and also a federation of such ^[9]
• Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the Honeybee. A honeycomb is a mass of Hexagonal Wax cells built by Honey bees in their nests to contain their larvae and stores of Honey and This article refers collectively to all true honey bees for the "common" domesticated honey bee see European honey bee Honey bees Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute.
• Musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks which usually are called “white musk”. Musk is the name originally given to a substance with a penetrating Odor obtained from a Gland of the male Musk deer, which is situated between its White musk, in the perfume industry refers to a group of synthetic Molecules that replaces natural animal Musk.

Other natural sources

• Lichens: Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli. Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Oakmoss, also known as Evernia prunastri, is a type of Lichen used extensively in modern Perfumery. Usnea is the generic and scientific name for several species of Lichen in the family Parmeliaceae, that generally grow hanging from tree branches
• "Seaweed": Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. The Phaeophyceae or brown algae, (singular alga is a large group of mostly marine multicellular Algae including many Seaweeds of colder An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile An example of a commonly used seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus, which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Fucus vesiculosus, known by the common name Bladder wrack, is a Seaweed found on the coasts of the North Sea, the western Baltic Sea Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics.

Synthetic sources

Main article: Aroma compound

Many modern perfumes contain synthetic odorants synthesized. In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Calone or methylbenzodioxepinone, trade-named Calone 1951, was discovered by Pfizer in 1966 Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Linalool (lɪˈnæloʊɒl is a naturally-occurring Terpene Alcohol chemical found in many Flowers and Spice plants with many commercial Coumarin is a Chemical compound ( Benzopyrone) a Toxin found in many Plants notably in high concentration in the Tonka bean, Terpenes are a large and varied class of Hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants particularly Conifers though also by some insects such Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids. Salicylic acid (from the Latin word for the willow tree Salix, from whose bark it can be obtained is a Beta hydroxy acid (BHA with the formula

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include:

• International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)
• Givaudan
• Firmenich
• Takasago
• Symrise

Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually. International Flavors and Fragrances ( IFF is a major producer of Flavors and Fragrances with sales of $2 Givaudan is the world's largest producer of Flavors and Fragrances with sales of CHF 4132 million in 2007 Firmenich SA is a private business specialising in flavors and fragrances and is a major worldwide Chemical Manufacturer. ( is a major international producer of flavors and fragrances headquartered in Japan, with presence in 22 countries worldwide and net sales of $900 million in 2006 Symrise ( is a major producer of Flavors and Fragrances with sales of € 1230 million in 2006 ( preliminary

Characteristics

Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery

Obtaining natural odorants

Main article: Extraction (fragrance)

Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Fragrance extraction refers to the extraction of aromatic compounds from raw materials using methods such as Distillation, Solvent extraction, Expression Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Organic synthesis is a special branch of Chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of Organic compounds via Organic reactions Organic Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. Wax has traditionally referred to a substance that is secreted by Bees ( Beeswax) and used by them in constructing their ^[10]

All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless.

• Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Liquid-liquid extraction, also known as solvent extraction and partitioning, is a method to separate compounds based on their relative solubilities in two Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat. Denaturation is a process in which Proteins or Nucleic acids lose their structure (tertiary structure by application of some external stress or compound for Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether. Hexane is an Alkane Hydrocarbon with the Chemical formula CH3(CH24CH3 or C6H14 Dimethyl ether is the organic compound with the formula CH3OCH3 The product of this process is called a "concrete".
  • Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO₂. Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE is the process of separating one component (the extractant from another (the matrix using Supercritical fluids as the extracting Solvent The nature of super critical carbon dioxide is established as a solvent for use in extraction Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material.
  • Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage. Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials since these contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol.
• Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Orange Blossom is a French band that plays a mix of electronic and world music A rose is a perennial flowering Shrub or vine of the Genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae, that contains over 100 species The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapour. Condensation is the change of the physical state of aggregation (or simply state of matter from gaseous phase into liquid phase
  • Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask. A Florence flask (also known as a boiling flask) is a type of Flask used as an item of Laboratory glassware. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. Herbal distillates are aqueous solutions or colloidal suspensions (hydrosol of Essential oils usually obtained by Steam distillation from aromatic plants This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. A stem is one of two main structural axes of a Vascular plant.
  • Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired. Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs
• Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible.
• Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into wax and then extracting the odorous oil with ethyl alcohol. Enfleurage is a process that uses odorless fats that are solid at room temperature to capture the fragrant compounds exuded by plants Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. Enfleurage is a process that uses odorless fats that are solid at room temperature to capture the fragrant compounds exuded by plants Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Denaturation is a process in which Proteins or Nucleic acids lose their structure (tertiary structure by application of some external stress or compound for This technique is not commonly used in the present day industry due to its prohibitive cost and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods. ^[6]

Fragrant extracts

Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile

Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes.

• Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. By using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. Hydrophile, from the Greek (hydros "water" and φιλια (philia "friendship" refers to a physical property of a Molecule Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid.
• Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. In Chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos) refers to the physical property of As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids.
• Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression oils.
• Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. Enfleurage is a process that uses odorless fats that are solid at room temperature to capture the fragrant compounds exuded by plants Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid.
• Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. In Medicine, a tincture is an Alcoholic Extract (eg of leaves or other plant material or Solution of a non- volatile substance Tinctures are typically thin liquids. ^[6]

Composing perfumes

Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing.

The perfumer

Main article: Perfumer

The job of composing perfumes that will sell is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer. The Perfumer is an expert on Perfume composition sometimes referred to affectionately as "the Nose " (french le nez) due to their fine sense of They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "Nez" (French for nose) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition.

The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries. A corporation is a separate legal entity usually used to conduct business The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume.

The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance (shampoos, make-up, detergents, car interiors, etc. Shampoo is a Hair care product used for the removal of oils, dirt skin particles Dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that A detergent (as a noun is a material intended to assist Cleaning. ), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance. ^[5]

Technique

Paper blotters are commonly used by perfumers to sample and smell perfumes and odorants.

Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and anti-oxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively.

Basic framework

Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups:

• Primary scents: Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract" primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. Cola flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent. Cola is a sweet carbonated drink usually with Caramel coloring and containing Caffeine.
• Modifiers: These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus scents can be added to create a "fresher" floral. Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least Calone or methylbenzodioxepinone, trade-named Calone 1951, was discovered by Pfizer in 1966 The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier.
• Blenders: A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different "layers" or bases. Common blending ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal. Linalool (lɪˈnæloʊɒl is a naturally-occurring Terpene Alcohol chemical found in many Flowers and Spice plants with many commercial
• Fixatives: Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins and wood scents, and amber bases are used for fixative purposes.

The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients.

The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for a minimum of 14 days and filtered through processing equipment to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.

Fragrance bases

Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and colognes are made using fragrance bases or simply bases. Each base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "fresh cut grass" or "juicy sour apple". Many of Guerlain's Aqua Allegoria line, with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like. Guerlain is among the oldest Perfume houses in the world It has a large and loyal customer following and is held in high esteem in the perfume industry

The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases for construction are quite numerous:

1. Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into a work of perfume
2. A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Rose oil, meaning either rose otto ( attar of rose, attar of roses) or rose absolute, is the Essential oil extracted from the Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, are composed as bases from data derived from headspace technology. Gardenia is a Genus of about 250 species of Flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae, native to the Tropical and Subtropical Headspace technology is a technique to elucidate the odor compounds present in the air surrounding various objects Usually the objects of interest are odoriferous objects such as plants
3. The concept of a perfume can be relatively quickly roughed out from a brief for purposes of feedback by cobbling together multiple bases and presented. Smoothing out the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive responses to the perfume concept.

Reverse engineering

Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as GC/MS can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry ( GC-MS) is a method that combines the features of Gas-liquid chromatography and Mass spectrometry to identify different The difficult of GC/MS analysis arise due to the complexity of a perfume's ingredients, this is particularly due to presence of natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the formulation of any perfume. . . customers and competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely. "^[11]

Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult due to the numerous degradation by-products and impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and compounds can usually be ruled out or identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers, which allow individual chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties and their scent.

Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of perfume market.

Health and environmental issues

Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause health or environmental problems when used or abused in substantial quantities. Although the areas are under active research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and the environment.

Health

Immunological

Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic reactions even when the participants could not actually smell the fragrances^[12]. Many fragrance ingredients can cause allergic skin reactions^[13] or nausea. ^[14][15][16]

In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. For instance, acetophenone, ethyl acetate and acetone while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory allergens. Acetophenone is the Organic compound with the formula C6H5C(OCH3 Ethyl acetate ( systematically, ethyl ethanoate commonly abbreviated EtOAc or EA is the Organic compound with the formula CH3COOCH2CH3 Acetone (also known as propanone, dimethyl ketone, 2-propanone, propan-2-one and β-ketopropane) is a colorless mobile flammable An allergen is a nonparasitic Antigen capable of stimulating a Type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals Nevertheless this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this.

Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation^[17], However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, are still lack scientific consensus ^[18]. Opopanax chironium, also known as "sweet Myrrh " or " Bisabol myrrh" is a Herb that grows one to three feet high and produces a large It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation.

Carcinogenicity

There is scientific evidence that some common ingredients, like certain synthetic musks, can disrupt the balance of hormones in the human body (endocrine disruption)^{[19] [20]} and even cause cancer (nitro-musks). Some natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes, contain allergens and carcinogenic compounds ^{[17] [21]}.

Environmental

Pollution

Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are often employed in large quantities to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to they large scale use, several types synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk [4], as well as in the sediments and waters of the Great Lakes ^[22]. ^[23]

These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets.

Species endangerment

The demands for aromatic materials like sandalwood, agarwood, musk has led to the endangerment of these species as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting.

Safety regulation

The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA, instead the FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and require that they be tested to the extent that they are Generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Generally Recognized as Safe ( GRAS) is a United States of America Food and Drug Administration (FDA designation that a chemical or substance added to food Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing of ingredients regardless of their effects on health. In Europe, the mandatory listing of any of a number of chemicals thought to be hazardous has just begun. As well many old perfumes of like chypres and fougeres classes, which require the use of oakmoss extract, are being reformulated because of these new regulations. Fougères (Felger in Breton, Foujerr in Gallo) is a commune and a sub-prefecture of the Ille-et-Vilaine department

Preserving perfume

Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of:

• Heat
• Light
• Oxygen
• Extraneous organic materials

Proper preservation of perfumes involve keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. In Physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is Energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in Temperature Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for up to a year, as long as it is full or nearly so, but as the level goes down, the presence of oxygen in the air that is contained in the bottle will alter the perfume's smell character, eventually distorting them. ^[5]

Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated at a relatively low temperatures between 3-7 degrees Celsius. WikipediaNaming Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which will degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.

Lists of perfumes

Further information: List of Famous Perfumes

Further information: List of celebrity endorsed perfumes

See also

• Aromatherapy
• Fragrance companies
• Fragrance oil
• Incense
• Pheromone
• Sex in advertising
• Fixative (perfumery)

References

Further reading

• Edwards, Michael (1997). "Perfume Legends: French Feminine Fragrances". Crescent House Publishing. ISBN 0-646-27794-4.
• Moran, Jan (2000). "Fabulous Fragrances II: A Guide to Prestige Perfumes for Women and Men". Crescent House Publishing. ISBN 0-9639065-4-2.
• Turin, Luca (2006). "The Secret of Scent". Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-21537-8.
• Stamelman, Richard: "Perfume - Joy, Obsession, Scandal, Sin". Rizzoli. ISBN-13:978-0-8478-2832-6. A cultural history of fragance from 1750 to the present day.

External links

• The World of Smell: An Inside Tour of the World's Largest Perfume Lab from Time. com
• Basenotes: Award-winning, online guide to the world of perfume and fragrances
• Fragrantica perfumes magazine, online encyclopedia of fragrances with user reviews, visual pyramid of notes and online community
• IFRA: International Fragrance Association
• The Fragrance Foundation "FiFi"
• osMoz: All on the perfumes