Peregrine Falcon
Adult of subspecies pealei or tundrius, Alaska
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Falconiformes Family: Falconidae Genus: Falco Species: F. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Least Concern ( LC) is an IUCN category assigned to extant species or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List) created in 1963 is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. The order Falconiformes is a group of about 290 Species of Birds that include the diurnal birds of prey. The falcons and caracaras are around 60 Species of diurnal birds of prey that comprise the family Falconidae. A falcon (fɔlkən or fælkən is any Species of raptor in the Genus Falco. peregrinus
Binomial name
Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771
Global range Yellow: Breeding summer visitor Green: Breeding resident Blue: Winter visitor Light blue: Passage visitor
Subspecies
17-19, see text
Synonyms
Falco atriceps Hume Falco kreyenborgi Kleinschmidt, 1929 Falco pelegrinoides madens Ripley & Watson, 1963 Rhynchodon peregrinus (Tunstall, 1771) and see text

The Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), also known simply as the Peregrine,^[2] and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America,^[3] is a cosmopolitan bird of prey in the family Falconidae. Marmaduke Tunstall ( 1743 - October 11, 1790) was an English Ornithologist and collector In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. In Scientific nomenclature, synonyms are different Scientific names used for a single Taxon. Allan Octavian Hume ( June 6, 1829 - July 31, 1912) son of Joseph Hume was a Civil servant in British governed India Sidney Dillon Ripley ( 20 September 1913 - 12 March 2001) was a noted American ornithologist and leader in Wildlife In Biogeography, a Biological category of living things is said to have cosmopolitan distribution if this category can be found almost anywhere around the world Birds of prey are Birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing using their keen senses especially vision In Biological classification, family ( Latin The falcons and caracaras are around 60 Species of diurnal birds of prey that comprise the family Falconidae. It is a large, crow-sized falcon, with a blue-gray back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "moustache". The true crows are large Passerine Birds that comprise the Genus Corvus in the family Corvidae. A falcon (fɔlkən or fælkən is any Species of raptor in the Genus Falco. As with other bird-eating raptors, the female is bigger than the male. ^[4][5] Authorities recognize 17–19 subspecies, which vary in appearance and range; there is disagreement over whether the distinctive Barbary Falcon is a subspecies or a distinct species. In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. The Barbary Falcon ( Falco pelegrinoides) is a medium-sized Falcon about the size of a Crow. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank.

The Peregrine's breeding range includes land regions from the Arctic tundra to the Tropics. The Arctic is the Region around the Earth 's North Pole, opposite the Antarctic region around the South Pole. In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons The Tropics are centered on the Equator and limited in Latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' (23 It can be found nearly everywhere on Earth, except in the polar regions, on very high mountains, and in most tropical rainforests; the only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely absent is New Zealand. Earth's polar regions are the areas of the globe surrounding the poles also known as frigid zones. Rainforests are Forests characterized by high Rainfall with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1750–2000 mm (68-78 inches New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island This makes it the world's most widespread bird of prey. ^[6] Both the English and scientific names of this species mean "wandering falcon", referring to the migratory habits of many northern populations. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability

While its diet consists almost exclusively of medium-sized birds, the Peregrine will occasionally hunt small mammals, small reptiles or even insects. It reaches sexual maturity at one year, and mates for life. It nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges or, in recent times on tall man-made structures. A bird nest is the spot in which a Bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young ^[7] The Peregrine Falcon became an endangered species due to the use of pesticides, especially DDT. DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long Since the ban on DDT from the beginning of the 1970s onwards, the populations recovered, supported by large scale protection of nesting places and releases to the wild. ^[8]

Contents 1 Description 2 Taxonomy and systematics 2.1 Subspecies 3 Ecology and behavior 3.1 Feeding 3.2 Reproduction 4 Relationship with humans 4.1 Recovery efforts 4.2 Current status 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links

Description

The Peregrine Falcon has a body length of 34–50 cm (13–20 in) and a wingspan of around 80–120 cm (31–47 in). ^[4] The male and female have similar markings and plumage, but as in many birds of prey the Peregrine Falcon displays marked reverse sexual dimorphism in size, with the female measuring up to 30 percent larger than the male. Plumage refers both to the layer of Feathers that cover a Bird and the pattern colour and arrangement of those feathers Birds of prey are Birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing using their keen senses especially vision Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different Sex in the same Species. ^[9] Males weigh 440–750 g, and the noticeably larger females weigh 910–1500 g; for variation in weight between subspecies, see under that section below. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation.

The back and the long, pointed wings of the adult are usually bluish black to slate grey with indistinct darker barring (see "Subspecies" below); the wingtips are black. ^[10] The underparts are white to rusty and barred with thin clean bands of dark brown or black. ^[11] The tail, colored like the back but with thin clean bars, is long, narrow and rounded at the end with a black tip and a white band at the very end. The top of the head and a "mustache" along the cheeks are black, contrasting sharply with the pale sides of the neck and white throat. ^[12] The cere is yellow, as are the feet, and the beak and claws are black. Anatomy Stegosaurus --> Beaks can vary significantly in size and shape from species to species Anatomy Stegosaurus --> Beaks can vary significantly in size and shape from species to species A claw is a curved pointed appendage found at the end of a toe or finger in most Mammals, Birds, and some Reptiles. ^[13] The upper beak is notched near the tip, an adaptation which enables falcons to kill prey by severing the spinal column at the neck. An adaptation is a characteristic of an Organism that has been favored by Natural selection and In Vertebrates cervical vertebrae (singular vertebra) are those vertebrae immediately behind (posterior to the Skull. ^[14][4][5] The immature bird is much browner with streaked, rather than barred, underparts, and has a pale bluish cere. ^[4][12]

Taxonomy and systematics

This species was first described by Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 Ornithologia Britannica under its current binomial name. Marmaduke Tunstall ( 1743 - October 11, 1790) was an English Ornithologist and collector ^[15] The scientific name Falco peregrinus, means "wandering falcon" in Latin. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[16] Indeed, the species' common name refers to its wide-ranging flights in most European languages. ^[17] The Latin term for falcon, falco, is related to falx, the Latin word meaning sickle, in reference to the silhouette of the falcon's long, pointed wings in flight. A sickle is a hand-held Agricultural Tool with a curved Blade typically used for harvesting grain crop or cutting grass for Hay. ^[14]

The Peregrine Falcon belongs to a genus whose lineage includes the hierofalcons^[18] and the Prairie Falcon (F. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic The hierofalcons (literally "hawk-falcons" are four closely related species of Falcon which make up the Subgenus Hierofalco: The Prairie Falcon ( Falco mexicanus) is a medium-sized Falcon of western North America.  mexicanus). This lineage probably diverged from other falcons towards the end of the Late Miocene or in the Early Pliocene, about 8–5 million years ago (mya). The Late Miocene (also known as Upper Miocene) is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages. In the Geologic time scale, the Zanclean (also known as Tabianian, Dacian) is the Age which makes up the Early Pliocene Annum is one form of the Latin noun meaning Year, not a form normally used for derivatives in modern languages the accusative singular As the Peregrine-hierofalcon group includes both Old World and North American species, it is likely that the lineage originated in western Eurasia or Africa. The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Its relationship to other falcons is not clear; the issue is complicated by widespread hybridization confounding mtDNA sequence analyses; for example a genetic lineage of the Saker Falcon (F. In Biology, hybrid has two meanings The first meaning is the result of interbreeding between two animals or plants of different taxa. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule The Saker Falcon ( Falco cherrug) is a very large Falcon. This species breeds from eastern Europe eastwards across Asia to  cherrug) is known^[19] which originated from a male Saker producing fertile young with a female Peregrine ancestor some 100,000 years ago. [ref]

Today, Peregrines are regularly hybridized in captivity with other species such as the Lanner Falcon (F. The Lanner Falcon ( Falco biarmicus) is a large Bird of prey that breeds in Africa, southeast Europe and just into Asia  biarmicus) to produce the "perilanner", a somewhat popular bird in falconry as it combines the Peregrine's hunting skill with the Lanner's hardiness, or the Gyrfalcon to produce large, strikingly-colored birds for the use of falconers. Perilanner is a term used by falconers to describe a hybrid between a Peregrine falcon and a Lanner falcon. Falconry or hawking is an Art or Sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey to hunt or pursue game for humans The Gyrfalcon ˈdʒɜrˌfɔlkən or ˈdʒɜrˌfælkən ( Falco rusticolus) also spelled Gyr Falcon, sometimes Gerfalcon, is the largest As can be seen, the Peregrine is still genetically close to the hierofalcons, though their lineages diverged in the Late Pliocene (maybe some 2. The Pliocene epoch (spelled Pleiocene in some older texts is the period in the Geologic timescale that extends 5–2 mya in the Gelasian). The Gelasian is a stage whose belonging to either the Pliocene or the Pleistocene Epochs is currently discussed ^[20]

Subspecies

Numerous subspecies of the Peregrine Falcon have been described, with 19 accepted by the Handbook of the Birds of the World. In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. HBW_-_Taxonomygif|right|frame|(400 × 258 pixels file size38KBMIME typeimage/gif|HBW-Page on Taxonomy]]HBW-accounts_8-082-083_copia ^[21][4][5] The nominate subspecies Falco peregrinus peregrinus, described by Tunstall in 1771, breeds over much of temperate Eurasia between the tundra in the north and the Pyrenees, Mediterranean region and Alpide belt in the south. Marmaduke Tunstall ( 1743 - October 11, 1790) was an English Ornithologist and collector For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés The Alpide belt is a Mountain range which extends along the southern margin of Eurasia. ^[22] It is mainly non-migratory in Europe, but migratory in Scandinavia and Asia. Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability Males weigh 580–750 g, while females weigh 925–1,300 g. ^[5] It includes brevirostris, germanicus, rhenanus, and riphaeus.

Falco peregrinus calidus, described by Latham in 1790, was formerly called leucogenys and includes caeruleiceps. John Latham may refer to John Latham (ornithologist (1740&ndash1837 British physician naturalist and author John Latham (physician It breeds in the Arctic tundra of Eurasia, from Murmansk Oblast to roughly Yana and Indigirka Rivers, Siberia. The Arctic is the Region around the Earth 's North Pole, opposite the Antarctic region around the South Pole. Murmansk Oblast (Му́рманская о́бласть Murmanskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an Oblast) located in the Yana River (Яна is a River in Sakha in Russia, located between the Lena to the west and the Indigirka to the east Indigirka River (Индиги́рка is a River in the Sakha Republic in Russia. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving It is completely migratory, and travels south in winter as far as sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries It is paler than peregrinus, especially on the crown. Males weigh 588–740 g, while females weigh 925–1,333 g. ^[5]

Falco peregrinus japonensis, described by Gmelin in 1788, includes kleinschmidti and pleskei, and harterti seems to refer to intergrades with calidus. Johann Friedrich Gmelin ( August 8, 1748 – November 1, 1804) was a German naturalist, Botanist and It is found from northeast Siberia to Kamchatka (though it is possibly replaced by pealei on coast there), and Japan. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Northern populations are migratory, while those of Japan are resident. It is similar to peregrinus, but the young are even darker than those of anatum.

Falco peregrinus macropus, described by Swainson in 1837 is the Australian Peregrine Falcon. It is found in Australia in all regions except the southwest. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. It is non-migratory. It is similar to brookei in appearance, but is slightly smaller and the ear region is entirely black. The feet are proportionally large. ^[11] Falco peregrinus submelanogenys described by Mathews in 1912, is the Southwest Australian Peregrine Falcon. Gregory Macalister Mathews CBE ( 10 September 1876 - 27 March 1949) was an Australian amateur Ornithologist. It is found in southwest Australia and is non-migratory.

Falco peregrinus peregrinator, described by Sundevall in 1837, is known as the Indian Peregrine Falcon, Black Shaheen, or Indian Shaheen. Carl Jakob Sundevall (1801, Högestad - 1875 was a Swedish Zoologist. ^[23] It was formerly sometimes known as Falco atriceps or Falco shaheen. The Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus) also known simply as the Peregrine, and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America is a Its range includes South Asia from Pakistan across India to Sri Lanka and Southeastern China; in Pakistan it is a military symbol of the Pakistan Air Force. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Pakistan Air Force ( Urdu: پاک فضائیہ, Pak Faza'ya) ( PAF) is the Aviation branch of the Pakistan armed forces It is non-migratory. It is small and dark, with rufous underparts barred with lighter color. In Sri Lanka this species is found to favour the higher hills while the migrant calidus is more often seen along the coast. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island ^[24]

Falco peregrinus anatum, described by Bonaparte in 1838,^[22] is known as the American Peregrine Falcon, or "Duck Hawk"; its scientific name means "Duck Peregrine Falcon". Charles Lucien (Carlo Jules Laurent Bonaparte 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano ( May 24, 1803 &ndash July 29, 1857) was a French At one time, it was partly included in leucogenys. It is mainly found in the Rocky Mountains today. Mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains, often called the Rockies, are a Mountain range in western North America. It was formerly common throughout North America between the tundra and northern Mexico, where current reintroduction efforts seek to restore the population. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Reintroduction is the deliberate release of species into the wild from captivity or relocated from other areas where the species survives ^[22] Most mature anatum, except those that breed in more northern areas, winter in their breeding range. Most vagrants that reach western Europe seem to belong to the more northern and strongly migratory tundrius, only considered distinct since 1968. It is similar to peregrinus but is slightly smaller; adults are somewhat paler and less patterned below, but juveniles are darker and more patterned below. Males weigh 500–570 g, while females weigh 900–960 g. ^[25][4] Falco peregrinus cassini, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the Austral Peregrine Falcon. It includes kreyenborgi, the Pallid Falcon^[26] a leucistic morph occurring in southernmost South America, which was long believed to be a distinct species. Leucism is a condition characterized by reduced Pigmentation in animals Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different Phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words the occurrence of more than one ^[27] Its range includes South America from Ecuador through Bolivia, northern Argentina and Chile to Tierra del Fuego and Falkland Islands. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Tierra del Fuego ( Spanish for " Land of Fire " in English tiˈɛərə dɛl ˈfweɪgoʊ] Spanish ˈtjerað̞elˈfweɰo is an Archipelago ^[11] It is non-migratory. It is similar to nominate, but slightly smaller with a black ear region. The variation kreyenborgi is medium grey above, has little barring below, and has a head pattern like the Saker Falcon, but the ear region is white. The Saker Falcon ( Falco cherrug) is a very large Falcon. This species breeds from eastern Europe eastwards across Asia to ^[27]

Falco peregrinus pealei, described by Ridgway in 1873, is also known as Peale's Falcon, and includes rudolfi. This article is about the American ornithologist For the Virginia congressman lawyer and editor see Robert Ridgway (congressman. The Peale's Falcon Falco peregrinus pealei is a subspecies of the Peregrine Falcon. ^[28] It is found in the Pacific Northwest of North America, northwards from the Puget Sound along the British Columbia coast (including the Queen Charlotte Islands), along the Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the far eastern Bering Sea coast of Russia. The Pacific Northwest is a region in the northwest of North America (the term refers to the land not the ocean Puget Sound (ˈpjuːʤᵻt is an arm of the Pacific Ocean, connected to the rest of the Pacific by the Strait of Juan de Fuca, in the Pacific Northwest British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C The Queen Charlotte Islands or Haida Gwaii ("Islands of the People" and originally in Haida, Xhaaidlagha Gwaayaai ("islands on The Gulf of Alaska is an arm of the Pacific Ocean defined by the curve of the southern coast of Alaska, stretching from the Alaska Peninsula and The Aleutian Islands (possibly from Chukchi aliat, " Island " are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming a Volcanic The Bering (or Imarpik) Sea is a body of water in the Pacific Ocean that comprises a deep water basin (the Aleutian Basin) which rises through Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending ^[28] It is possibly found on the Kuril Islands and the coasts of Kamchatka as well. The Kuril Islands (ˈkʊrɪl or /ˈkjuˈriˈl/ Кури́льские острова́ əstrʌˈva ru-Latn ''Kuril'skie ostrova'' or Kurile Islands in Russia It is non-migratory. It is the largest subspecies, and it looks like an oversized and darker tundrius or like a strongly barred and large anatum. The bill is very wide. ^[29] Juveniles occasionally have pale crowns. Falco peregrinus tundrius, described by C. M. White in 1968, was at one time included in leucogenys It is found in the Arctic tundra of North America to Greenland. Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the It migrates to wintering grounds in Central and South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a ^[29] Most vagrants that reach western Europe belong to this subspecies, which was previously united with anatum. It is the New World equivalent to calidus. It is smaller than anatum. It is also paler than anatum; most have a conspicuous white forehead and white in ear region, but the crown and "moustache" are very dark, unlike in calidus. ^[29] Juveniles are browner, and less grey, than in calidus, and paler, sometimes almost sandy, than in anatum.

Falco peregrinus madens, described by Ripley and Watson in 1963, is unusual in having some sexual dichromatism. Sidney Dillon Ripley ( 20 September 1913 - 12 March 2001) was a noted American ornithologist and leader in Wildlife Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different Sex in the same Species. If the Barbary Falcon (see below) is considered a distinct species, it is sometimes placed therein. It is found in the Cape Verde Islands, and is non-migratory;^[11] it is endangered with only six to eight pairs surviving. The Republic of Cape Verde ( Portuguese: Cabo Verde, 'kabu 'veɾdɨ is a Republic located on an Archipelago in the Macaronesia ^[4] Males have a rufous wash on crown, nape, ears and back; underside conspicuously washed pinkish-brown. Females are tinged rich brown overall, especially on the crown and nape. ^[11] Falco peregrinus minor was first described by Bonaparte in 1850. Charles Lucien (Carlo Jules Laurent Bonaparte 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano ( May 24, 1803 &ndash July 29, 1857) was a French It was formerly often perconfusus. ^[30] It is sparsely and patchily distributed throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa and widespread in Southern Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. It apparently reaches north along the Atlantic coast as far as Morocco. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa It is non-migratory, and small and dark. Falco peregrinus radama, described by Hartlaub in 1861, is found in Madagascar and Comoros. Karel Johan Gustav Hartlaub ( November 8, 1814 - November 29, 1900) was a German Physician and Zoologist. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ It is non-migratory. ^[11]

Falco peregrinus brookei, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the Mediterranean Peregrine Falcon or the Maltese Falcon. Richard Bowdler Sharpe ( 22 November 1847 - 25 December 1909) was an English Zoologist. ^[31] It includes caucasicus and most specimens of the proposed race punicus, though others may be pelegrinoides, Barbary Falcons (see also below), or perhaps the rare hybrids between these two which might occur around Algeria. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's They occur from the Iberian Peninsula around the Mediterranean, except in arid regions, to the Caucasus. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra In general terms the Climate of a local or region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available Water, to the extent of hindering The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East They are non-migratory. It is smaller than the nominate subspecies, and the underside usually has rusty hue. ^[11] Males weigh around 445 g, while females weigh up to 920 g. ^[5]

Falco peregrinus ernesti, described by Sharpe in 1894, is found from Indonesia to Philippines and south to Papua New Guinea and Bismarck Archipelago. John Gould ( 14 September 1804 – 3 February 1881) was an English Ornithologist. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Papua New Guinea (or ˈpæpjuːə in Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini) officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania The Bismarck Archipelago is a group of islands off the northeastern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean and part of Papua New Guinea. Its geographical separation from nesiotes requires confirmation. It is non-migratory. It differs from the nominate in the very dark, dense barring on its underside and its black ear coverts. Falco peregrinus furuitii, described by Momiyama in 1927, is found on the Izu and Ogasawara Islands. The are a group of Volcanic Islands stretching south and east from the Izu Peninsula of Honshū, Japan. It is non-migratory. It is very rare, and may only remain on a single island. ^[4] It is a dark form, resembling pealei in color, but darker, especially on tail. ^[11] Falco peregrinus nesiotes described by Mayr in 1941,^[32] is found in Fiji and probably also Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Ernst Walter Mayr ( July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany &ndash February 3, 2005, Bedford Massachusetts U Fiji (Matanitu ko Viti फ़िजी officially the Republic of the Fiji Islands (Matanitu Tu-Vaka-i-koya ko Viti फ़िजी द्वीप समूह गणराज्य Vanuatu, officially the Republic of Vanuatu ( French: République de Vanuatu, Bislama: Ripablik blong Vanuatu) is an Island For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. It is non-migratory. ^[33]

Falco peregrinus pelegrinoides, first described by Temminck in 1829, is found in the Canary Islands through north Africa and the Near East to Mesopotamia. Coenraad Jacob Temminck ( March 31, 1778, Amsterdam - January 30, 1858, Lisse) was a Dutch aristocrat and The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding It is most similar to brookei, but is markedly paler above, with a rusty neck, and is a light buff with reduced barring below. It is smaller than the nominate subspecies; females weigh around 610 g. ^[5] Falco peregrinus babylonicus described by P.L. Sclater in 1861, is found in eastern Iran along the Hindu Kush and Tian Shan to Mongolian Altai ranges. Philip Lutley Sclater ( November 4, 1829 - June 27, 1913) was an English Lawyer and Zoologist. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central The Altai Mountains (Алтай Altay; Алтай 阿尔泰山脉 are a Mountain range in central Asia, where Russia, It is paler than pelegrinoides, and somewhat similar to a small, pale Lanner Falcon. The Lanner Falcon ( Falco biarmicus) is a large Bird of prey that breeds in Africa, southeast Europe and just into Asia It is smaller than Peregrine Falcon; males weigh 330–400 g, while females weigh 513–765 g. ^[5] These last two races are often split as Barbary Falcon Falco pelegrinoides. The Barbary Falcon ( Falco pelegrinoides) is a medium-sized Falcon about the size of a Crow. ^[5] There is a 0. 6–0. 7% genetic distance in the Peregine-Barbary Falcon ("peregrinoid") complex. ^[34] These birds inhabit arid regions from the Canary Islands along the rim of the Sahara through the Middle East to Central Asia and Mongolia. In general terms the Climate of a local or region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available Water, to the extent of hindering The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East They have a red neck patch but otherwise differ in appearance from the Peregrine proper merely according to Gloger's Rule. Gloger's Rule is a zoological rule which states that within a Species of Endotherms, more heavily pigmented forms tend to be found in more Humid ^[35] The Barbary Falcon has a peculiar way of flying, beating only the outer part of its wings like fulmars sometimes do; this also occurs in the Peregrine, but less often and far less pronounced. The two Fulmars are closely related Seabirds occupying the same niche in different Oceans. ^[5] The Barbary Falcon's shoulder and pelvis bones are stout by comparison with the Peregrine, and its feet are smaller. In Human anatomy, the shoulder joint comprises the part of the body where the Humerus attaches to the Scapula. The pelvis (pl pelvises or pelves) or pelvic girdle is the irregular bony structure located at the base of the spine (properly known ^[36] They have no postzygotic reproduction barriers in place,^[37] but they breed at different times of year than neighboring Peregrine Falcon subspecies. ^{[38][39][5][40][41][42][43]}

Ecology and behavior

The Peregrine Falcon lives mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, coastlines, and increasingly in cities. A mountain range is a chain of Mountains bordered by highlands or separated from other mountains by passes or valleys In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is The coast is defined as the part of the land adjoining or near the Ocean. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status ^[11] In mild-winter regions, it is usually a permanent resident, and some individuals, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. Only populations that breed in Arctic climes typically migrate great distances during the northern winter. The seven climes ( klima, plural klimata, meaning "inclination" referring to the angle between the axis of the Celestial sphere and the horizon ^[44] The Peregrine Falcon is often stated to be the fastest animal on the planet in its hunting dive, the stoop, which involves soaring to a great height and then diving steeply at speeds commonly (but perhaps erroneously) said to be over 322 km/h (200 mph), and hitting one wing of its prey so as not to harm itself on impact. ^[14] A study testing the flight physics of an 'ideal falcon' found a theoretical speed limit at 400 km/h (250 mph) for low altitude flight and 625 km/h (390 mph) for high altitude flight. ^[45] Despite these theoretical values, measurements of real stoops by radar resulted in maximum diving speeds of only 140 km/h (87 mph). Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range altitude direction or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as Aircraft, ships ^[46]

The life span in the wild is up to 15. 5 years. ^[5] Mortality in the first year is between 59–70%, declining to between 25–32% in adults. ^[5] Apart from anthropogenic threats like collision with man-made objects, the Peregrine may be killed by large eagles or large owls. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Eagles are large birds of prey which are members of the Bird order Falconiformes and family Accipitridae, and belong to several genera The Owls are an order of birds of prey. Most are Solitary, and nocturnal, with some exceptions (e ^[47] The Peregrine Falcon is host to a range of parasites and pathogens. In Biology, a host is an organism that harbors a Virus or Parasite, or a mutual or Commensal Symbiont, typically providing nourishment Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious It is a vector for Avipoxvirus, Newcastle disease virus, Falconid herpesvirus 1 (and possibly other Herpesviridae), and some mycoses and bacterial infections. In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from Avipoxvirus is a member of the Poxviridae family The Poxviridae family is the family of viruses which cause the victim organism to have poxes as a symptom Newcastle disease is a highly contagious Zoonotic Bird Disease affecting many domestic and wild avian species The Herpesviridae are a large family of DNA viruses that cause diseases in animals including humans Mycosis (plural mycoses) is a condition in which Fungi pass the resistance barriers of the human or animal body and establish Infections Classification An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. Endoparasites include Plasmodium relictum (usually not causing malaria in the Peregrine Falcon), Strigeidae trematodes, Serratospiculum amaculata (nematode), and tapeworms. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Avian malaria is a Parasitic disease affecting Birds Etiology Avian malaria is most notably caused by Plasmodium relictum Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including The Trematoda is a class within the phylum Platyhelminthes that contains two groups of parasitic Worms commonly referred to as flukes The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common Tapeworm is also an older name for a type of Computer virus. Cestoda is a class of Parasitic Flatworms commonly called Known Peregrine Falcon ectoparasites are chewing lice^[48] Ceratophyllus garei (a flea), and Hippoboscidae flies (Icosta nigra, Ornithoctona erythrocephala). Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Chewing lice ( Mallophaga) have nearly 3000 species and represent the larger of the two traditional suborders of Lice (cf Flea is the Common name for any of the small wingless Insects of the order Siphonaptera (some authorities use the name Aphaniptera Hippoboscidae, the louse flies or keds are obligate Parasites of Mammals and Birds. ^[49]

Feeding

The Peregrine Falcon feeds almost exclusively on medium sized birds such as doves, waterfowl, songbirds and pigeons. See also UK Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust USA Ducks Unlimited SongBird is a Dutch Record label owned by Tijs Verwest and Arny Bink ^[13] Other than bats taken at night,^[50] it rarely hunts small mammals, but will on occasion take rats, voles, hares, mice and squirrels; the coastal populations of the large subspecies pealei feed almost exclusively on seabirds. Seabirds are Birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment ^[12] In the Brazilian mangrove swamp of Cubatão, a wintering falcon of the subspecies tundrius was observed while hunting successfully a juvenile Scarlet Ibis. Mangroves (generally are Trees and Shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the Tropics and Subtropics. Cubatão is a city in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, 12 kilometers away from Santos (São Paulo ' seaport the largest in Latin America The Scarlet Ibis ( Eudocimus ruber) is a Species of Ibis that inhabits tropical South America and also Trinidad and Tobago. ^[51] Insects and reptiles make up a small proportion of the diet, which varies greatly depending on what prey is available. ^[13] In urban areas, the main item of the Peregrine's diet is the feral pigeon, followed by other common city birds such as Common Starlings and Common Swifts. Feral pigeons, also called city doves, city pigeons or street pigeons, are derived from Domestic pigeons that have returned to the wild The European Starling, Common Starling or just Starling, Sturnus vulgaris, is a Passerine Bird in the family The Common Swift ( Apus apus) is a small Bird, superficially similar to the barn swallow or house martin. ^[50]

The Peregrine Falcon hunts at dawn and dusk, when prey are most active, but in cities also nocturnally, particularly during migration periods when hunting at night may become prevalent. Nocturnal migrants taken by Peregrines include species as diverse as Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Black-necked Grebe, Virginia Rail and Common Quail. The Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Coccyzus americanus, is a Cuckoo. Common folk-names for this bird in the southern United States are Rain Crow and Storm The Black-necked Grebe, Podiceps nigricollis, known in North America as the Eared Grebe, is a member of the Grebe family of water birds The Virginia Rail, Rallus limicola, is a small waterbird of the family Rallidae. The Common Quail, Coturnix coturnix, is from the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds ^[50] It requires open space in order to hunt, and therefore often hunts over open water, marshes, valleys, fields and tundra. In Geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of Wetland which is subject In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons It searches for prey either from a high perch or from the air. ^[52] Once prey is spotted, it begins its stoop, folding back the tail and wings, with feet tucked. ^[12] The air pressure from a 200 mph (320 km/h) dive could possibly damage a bird's lungs, but small bony tubercles in a falcon's nostrils guide the shock waves of the air entering the nostrils (compare intake ramps and inlet cones of jet engines), enabling the bird to breathe more easily while diving by reducing the change in air pressure. lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive For the music album by Converter see Shock Front For the 1977 horror film see Shock Waves A shock wave (also called An intake ramp is a rectangular plate-like device within the air intake of a Jet engine, designed to generate a Shock wave to aid the inlet compression process at Inlet cones (sometimes called shock cones) are a component of some supersonic aircraft specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to ^[53] To protect their eyes, the falcons use their nictitating membranes (third eyelids) to spread tears and clear debris from their eyes while maintaining vision. The nictitating membrane is a transparent or Translucent third Eyelid present in some animals that can be drawn across the Eye for protection and to moisten Prey is struck and captured in mid-air; the Peregrine Falcon strikes its prey with a clenched foot, stunning or killing it, then turns to catch it in mid-air. ^[52] The Peregrine will drop it to the ground and eat it there if it is too heavy to carry. Prey is plucked before consumption. ^[53]

Reproduction

The Peregrine Falcon is sexually mature at the end of the first year of age but in healthy populations they breed after two to three years of age. The pair mates for life and returns to the same nesting spot annually. The courtship flight includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives. ^[10] The male passes prey it has caught to the female in mid-air. To make this possible, the female actually flies upside-down to receive the food from the male's talons. The Peregrine Falcon is territorial during the breeding season; nesting pairs are usually more than 1 km (0. 6 miles) apart, and often much farther, even in areas with large numbers of pairs. ^[54] The distance between nests ensures sufficient food supply for pairs and their chicks. Within a breeding territory, a pair may have several nesting ledges; the number used by a pair can vary from one or two to seven in a 16 year period. The pair defends the chosen nest site against other Peregrines, and often against eagles or ravens. Eagles are large birds of prey which are members of the Bird order Falconiformes and family Accipitridae, and belong to several genera Raven is the common name given to the largest species of Passerine Birds in the Genus Corvus. ^[54]

The Peregrine Falcon nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges or, today regularly in many parts of its range, on tall buildings or bridges. Cliff nests are generally located under an overhang, on ledges with vegetation, and south-facing sites are favored. ^[12] In some regions, as in parts of Australia and on the west coast of Northern North-America, large tree hollows are used for nesting. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Before the demise of most European peregrines, there was a large population of peregrines in central and western Europe using the disused nests of other large birds. ^[13] The female chooses a nest site, where she scrapes a shallow hollow in the loose soil, sand, gravel, or dead vegetation in which to lay eggs. No nest materials are added. ^[10] In remote, undisturbed areas such as the Arctic, steep slopes and even low rocks and mounds may be used as nest sites. The man-made structures used for breeding closely resemble the natural cliff ledges that the Peregrine prefers for its nesting locations. ^[4][54]

Mostly three to four eggs (range 1-5) are laid in the scrape. ^[55] The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings. ^[55] They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female. ^[12] The male also helps with the incubation of the eggs over day, but at night only the female incubates. The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in the Northern Hemisphere, and from July to August in the Southern Hemisphere (the Australian subspecies macropus may breed as late as November and equatorial populations may nest anytime between June and December). Northern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is North of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' Southern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is South of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the The female generally lays another clutch if the eggs are lost early in the nesting season, though this is extremely rare in the Arctic owing to the short summer season. As a result of some infertile eggs and natural losses of nestlings, the average number of young found in nests is 2. 5, and the average number that fledges is about 1. 5. ^[53][25][4]

After hatching, chicks are covered with creamy-white down and have disproportionately large feet. ^[54] The male, which is called the "tiercel", brings food to the female and chicks, but the chicks are fed by the female, which stays at the nest and watches the young. ^[53] The hunting territory of the parents can extend a radius of 19 to 24 km (12-15 miles) from the nest site. ^[56] Chicks fledge 42 to 46 days after hatching, and remain dependent on their parents for up to two months. ^[57]

Relationship with humans

See also: Peregrine Falcons in popular culture

The Peregrine Falcon became an endangered species because of the use of pesticides, especially DDT during the 1950s, 60s, and 70s. Peregrine Falcons in popular culture deals with the uses made of the image of the Peregrine Falcon. DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long ^[58] Pesticide biomagnification interfered with reproduction, thinning eggshells and reducing the number of eggs that survived to hatching. Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification, or biological magnification is the increase in concentration of a substance such as the Pesticide ^[52] The organochlorine build-up in the falcon's fat tissues would result in less calcium in the eggshells, leading to flimsier, more fragile eggs. Applications The simplest form of organochlorides are chlorinated Hydrocarbons These consist of simple Hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms have ^[59] In several parts of the world, such as the eastern USA and Belgium, this species became extinct as a result. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. ^[60] Peregrine eggs and chicks are often targeted by black marketeers^[61] and unscrupulous egg collectors, so it is normal practice not to publicize unprotected nest locations. Oology, or oölogy is the branch of Zoology that deals with the study of eggs especially Birds eggs ^[62]

The Peregrine Falcon was used in falconry for more than 3,000 years, beginning with nomads in central Asia. Falconry or hawking is an Art or Sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey to hunt or pursue game for humans ^[54] Due to its ability to dive at high speeds, it was highly sought-after and generally used by experienced falconers. ^[9] Peregrine Falcons are also occasionally used to scare away birds at airports to reduce the risk of bird-plane strikes, improving air-traffic safety. A bird strike (sometimes birdstrike, bird hit, or BASH (Bird Aircraft Strike Hazard in Aviation is a collision between an airborne animal (usually ^[63]

Recovery efforts

In the USA, Canada and Germany, Wildlife services in Peregrine Falcon recovery teams breed the species in captivity. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. ^[64] The chicks are usually fed through a chute or with a hand puppet mimicking a Peregrine's head, so they cannot see to imprint on the human trainers. A hand puppet (also called a glove puppet) is a type of Puppet that is controlled by the hand or hands that occupies the interior of the puppet This article is about the psychological term For other meanings see Imprinting. ^[44] Then, when they are old enough, the rearing box is opened, allowing the bird to train its wings. As the fledgling gets stronger, feeding is reduced forcing the bird to learn to hunt. This procedure is called hacking back to the wild. In Falconry, to hack a newly-fledged hawk means to feed it but let it fly loose when it has learned to fly and has started to hunt it is caught and trained for falconry ^[65] To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird is placed in a special cage at the top of a tower or cliff ledge for some days or so, allowing it to acclimate itself to its future environment. ^[65] Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful. ^[64] The widespread restriction of DDT use eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully. ^[44] The Peregrine Falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list on August 25, 1999. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming Extinct because it is either few in numbers or threatened by changing environmental or predation Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) ^[44]

Current status

Many Peregrine Falcons have settled in large cities, including London, Ontario, Derby, Brisbane and Cologne, and all across the U. London is a city in Southwestern Ontario, Canada along the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor with a metropolitan area population of 457720 the city proper Derby (pronounced "dar-bee" /dˈɑːbɪ/ is a city in the East Midlands of England. Brisbane ( is the state capital of Queensland. Brisbane is the third most populous city in Australia and the most populous city of Queensland S. , where they nest on cathedrals, skyscraper window ledges, and the towers of suspension bridges. This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral A skyscraper is a tall continuously habitable Building. There is no official definition or a precise cutoff height above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper This article is concerned with a particular type of suspension bridge the suspended-deck type At least 18 pairs nested in New York City proper in 2005. The City of New York In Virginia, state officials working with students from the Center for Conservation Biology of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg successfully established nesting boxes high atop the George P. Coleman Memorial Bridge on the York River, the Benjamin Harrison Memorial Bridge and Varina-Enon Bridge on the James River, and at other similar locations. The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state The College of William and Mary (officially The College of William and Mary in Virginia, also known as William & Mary or W&M) is a Public university Williamsburg is a city located on the Virginia Peninsula in the Hampton Roads region in southeastern Virginia The George P Coleman Memorial Bridge (known locally as simply the Coleman Bridge) is a Swing bridge that spans the York River between Gloucester County York River can refer to In the United States The York River (Virginia The York River (Maine In Canada The Benjamin Harrison Memorial Bridge is a vertical- Lift bridge that spans the James River between Jordan's Point in Prince George County and Varina-Enon Bridge carries Interstate 295 across the James River near Dutch Gap between Henrico County near Richmond and Chesterfield The James River in the US state of Virginia is a long River, including its Jackson River source Thirteen new chicks were hatched in this Virginia program during a recent year. Over 250 falcons have been released through the Virginia program. ^[66] In the UK, there has been a recovery of populations since the crash of the 1960s. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This has been greatly assisted by conservation and protection work led by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB) is a British Charitable organisation which works to promote conservation and protection Peregrines now breed in many mountainous and coastal areas, especially in the west and north, and nest in some urban areas, capitalizing on the urban pigeon populations for food. ^[67]

References

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External links

• Peregrine Falcon at the Encyclopedia of Life
• Identification guide (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta

Conservation organizations:

• Falcon Research Group
• Peregrine Falcon Fund
• The Canadian Peregrine Foundation
• European Peregrine Falcon Working Group

Video and other media of Peregrines:

• Peregrine Falcon videos on the Internet Bird Collection
• The Raptor Resource Project. Links to Peregrine falcon webcams

Encyclopedia of Life ( EOL) is a free online collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all of the 1

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