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The Peninsular War[3] pitted an alliance of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal against France (with some Swiss, German, Italian and Polish soldiers) on the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions The Second of May 1808, also known as The Charge of the Mamelukes, is a painting by the Spanish master Francisco de Goya. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. Year 1808 ( MDCCCVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. Year 1807 ( MDCCCVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 69 - After the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius becomes Roman Emperor. Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra The Treaty of Fontainebleau was an agreement established in Paris ( Fontainebleau) on April 11, 1814 between Napoleon Bonaparte and Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The Kingdom of Portugal was Portugal 's general designation under the monarchy. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c Joaquín Blake y Joyes ( 19 August 1759 &ndash 27 April 1827) was a Spanish Military officer who served with distinction For the Mexican town see Castaños. Don Francisco Javier Castaños Aragorri Urioste y Olavide Count of Castaños y Aragones Gregorio García de la Cuesta y Fernández de Celis (1741 &ndash 1811 was a prominent Spanish General of the Peninsular War known for his participation Don Miguel Ricardo de Álava y Esquivel Marquess de Álava ( July 7, 1770 - July 14, 1843) was a Spanish General and Sir John Moore, KB (13 November 1761 &ndash 16 January 1809 was a British soldier and General Killed in action ( KIA or K I A) is a casualty classification generally used by militaries to describe the deaths of their own forces by other Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, 1st Duc de Dalmatie (29 March 1769 26 November 1851 the Hand of Iron, was a French general and statesman named Louis Gabriel Suchet, 1st Duc d' Albufera ( March 2, 1770 &ndash January 3, 1826) Marshal of France, one of Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier, 1st Duc de Trévise (13 February 1768 28 July 1835 was a French General and Marshal of France Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The Kingdom of Portugal was Portugal 's general designation under the monarchy. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions The war began when French armies occupied Portugal in 1807 and Spain in 1808 and lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814. In the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814 a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number
Spain's liberation struggle marked one of the first national wars[4] and large-scale guerrilla conflicts, from which the English language borrowed the word. Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a Belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at his disposal Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States [5] Its success was in part decided by the exploits of Spanish guerrilleros and the inability of Napoleon Bonaparte's large armies to pacify the people of Spain. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. [6]
Throughout the war, British and Portuguese armies defended Portugal and staged diversionary campaigns against French forces while guerrillas bled the occupiers. The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. The Portuguese Army (Exército Português is the ground branch of the Portuguese Armed Forces which in cooperation with other branches of the Portuguese military is charged with Together, the regular and irregular allied forces prevented Napoleon's marshals from subduing the rebellious Spanish provinces. Irregular military refers to any non-standard military Being defined by exclusion there is a lot of variance in what comes under the term The Marshal of France (Maréchal de France and pl Maréchaux de France is a military distinction in contemporary France, not a Military rank. [7] French units in Spain, forced to guard their vulnerable supply lines, were always in danger of being cut off and overwhelmed by the partisans, and proved unable to stamp out the Spanish army. The Spanish Army ( Ejército de Tierra in Spanish; literally "Land Army" is one of oldest active armies in the world and a branch of the Spanish [8] In the final years of war, with France gravely weakened following Napoleon's invasion of Russia, Wellington's allied army pushed across Spain from Portugal, pursuing offensives that brought it past the Pyrenees and liberated the country. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés
The burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain and ushered in an era of turbulence, instability, and economic crisis. Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, led by officers trained in the Peninsular War, persisted in Iberia until 1850. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything The shock of war also led to the independence of the former Spanish colonies of the Americas and the independence of Brazil from Portugal. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The Empire of Brazil was a political entity that comprised present-day Brazil under the rule of Emperors Pedro I and his son Pedro II.
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Background
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For more details on this topic, see Enlightenment Spain. The Age of Enlightenment (in Spanish Ilustración) came to Spain in the eighteenth century with the French Bourbon dynasty, after the decay
In 1806, while in Berlin, Napoleon declared the Continental Blockade, forbidding British imports into continental Europe. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Continental System was the Foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the [9] Of the two remaining neutral countries – Sweden and Portugal – the latter tried in vain to avoid Napoleon's ultimatum (since 1373 it had had a treaty of alliance with the English which became an alliance with the United Kingdom). For other uses of Neutral and Neutrality see Neutral A neutral country takes no side in a War between other parties "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Kingdom of England was a State (927-1707 located in Western Europe dating from the ninth or tenth century to the early eighteenth century when it was legally The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 After the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, now free from obligations in the east, Napoleon decided to capture the Iberian ports. The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland in the town of Tilsit The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra [10]
On October 27, 1807, Spain and France signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, splitting Portugal into three kingdoms: the new Kingdom of Northern Lusitania, the Algarve (expanded to include Alentejo), and a rump Kingdom of Portugal. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. Year 1807 ( MDCCCVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed on October 27, 1807 in Fontainebleau between Charles IV of Spain and Napoleon I of France. The Kingdom of Northern Lusitania was a kingdom proposed by Napoleon in 1807 for the Monarch of Etruria, Charles II of Parma The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal. Alentejo (ɐlẽˈtɛʒu is a south-central region of Portugal. [11] In November 1807, after the refusal of Prince Regent John of Portugal to join the Continental System, Napoleon sent an army into Spain under General Jean-Andoche Junot with the task of invading Portugal. John VI (13 May 1767 &ndash 10 March 1826 ( Portuguese João, ʒʊˈɐ̃ũ the Clement ( Port The Continental System was the Foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the Jean-Andoche Junot, 1st Duc d' Abrantès ( October 23, 1771 &ndash July 29, 1813) was a French General At the same time, General Dupont was sent in the direction of Cádiz and Marshal Soult towards Corunna. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, 1st Duc de Dalmatie (29 March 1769 26 November 1851 the Hand of Iron, was a French general and statesman named A Coruña ( Spanish: La Coruña; Galician: A Coruña; also Corunna in English, and archaically The Groyne) is
Spain initially requested Portugal's alliance against the incoming French armies, but later secretly agreed with France that, in return for its cooperation, it would receive Portugal's territories. Spain's main ambition was the seizure of the Portuguese fleet, and sent two divisions to help French troops occupy Portugal. A fleet, or naval fleet is a large formation of Warships, and the largest formation in any Navy.
The Portuguese army was positioned to defend the ports and the coast from a French attack, and on December 1 Lisbon was captured with no military opposition. Events 800 - Charlemagne judges the accusations against Pope Leo III in the Vatican Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. The escape on November 29 of the Portuguese Queen Maria I and Prince Regent John together with the Administration and the Court (around 10,000 people and 9,000 sailors aboard 23 Portuguese war ships and 31 merchant ships), enabled John VI to continue to rule over his overseas possessions, including Brazil. Events 1777 - San Jose California, is founded as el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe Maria I ( December 17, 1734 – March 20, 1816) was Queen of Portugal and the Algarves from 1777 until her death John VI (13 May 1767 &ndash 10 March 1826 ( Portuguese João, ʒʊˈɐ̃ũ the Clement ( Port |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld This was a major setback for Napoleon, who wrote, C'est ça qui m'a perdu ("This was what defeated me. "). [12]
Peninsular War
Invasion by stealth (February–July 1808)
Under the pretext of reinforcing the Franco-Spanish army occupying Portugal, French Imperial troops began filing into Spain, where the populace greeted them with enthusiasm in spite of growing diplomatic unease. Pedro Velarde y Santillán ( October 25, 1779 &ndash May 2, 1808) was a Spanish Artillery Captain famous Last stand is a loose Military term used to describe a body of Troops holding a defensive position in the face of overwhelming odds In February 1808, Napoleon dropped his charade and turned on his ally, ordering French commanders to halt their marches and seize key Spanish fortresses. [13] A French column, disguised as a convoy of wounded, took Barcelona on February 29 by convincing the authorities to open the city's gates. Barcelona ( Catalan bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish baɾθeˈlona is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours [14] Many commanders were not particularly concerned about the fate of the ruling regime, nor were they in any position to fight. (When Brigadier Alvarez garrisoned the Barcelona citadel against the French, his own superiors ordered him to stand down. Brigadier Mariano Alvarez de Castro (1749-1810 was a Spanish military officer and the military governor of Gerona during the siege by the French during the War of Spanish )
The Spanish Royal Army of 100,000 men found itself paralyzed: under-equipped,[15] frequently leaderless, confused by the turmoil in Madrid, and scattered from Portugal to the Balearic Islands. The Spanish Army ( Ejército de Tierra in Spanish; literally "Land Army" is one of oldest active armies in the world and a branch of the Spanish The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean Fifteen thousand of its finest troops, (General La Romana's "Division of the North") had been lent to Napoleon in 1807 and remained stationed in Denmark under French command. Don Pedro Caro y Sureda 3rd marqués de La Romana ( October 2, 1761 &ndash January 23, 1811) was a distinguished Spanish The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Only the peripheries contained armies of any strength: Galicia, with Blake's troops, and Andalusia, under Castaños. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. Joaquín Blake y Joyes ( 19 August 1759 &ndash 27 April 1827) was a Spanish Military officer who served with distinction Andalusia (Andalucía is an autonomous community of Spain. It is the most populous and the second largest in terms of land area For the Mexican town see Castaños. Don Francisco Javier Castaños Aragorri Urioste y Olavide Count of Castaños y Aragones The French were consequently able to seize much of north-eastern Spain by coups de main, and any hope of turning back the invasion was stillborn. A coup de main is a swift attack that relies on speed and surprise to accomplish its objectives in a single blow
To secure his gains, Napoleon pursued a series of intrigues against the Spanish royal family. Don Pedro Caro y Sureda 3rd marqués de La Romana ( October 2, 1761 &ndash January 23, 1811) was a distinguished Spanish A coup d'état instigated by the Spanish aristocrats forced Charles IV from his throne and replaced him with his son Ferdinand. Charles IV ( November 11, 1748 - January 20, 1819) was King of Spain from December 14, 1788 until his abdication Early life In his youth he occupied the painful position of an heir apparent who was jealously excluded from all share in government by his parents and the royal favorite Napoleon removed the royals to Bayonne and forced them both to abdicate on May 5, handing the throne to his brother Joseph. Bayonne ( French: Bayonne bajɔn Gascon Occitan and Basque: Baiona) is a city and commune of southwest Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure A puppet Spanish council approved the new king, but the usurpation provoked a popular uprising that eventually spread throughout the country. Citizens of Madrid rose up in rebellion against the French occupation on May 2, slew 150 French soldiers, and were not put down until Murat's elite Guard and mameluk cavalry crashed into the city and trampled the crowds. Madrid (pronounced in English in Spanish and colloquially in Spain) is the Capital and largest city of Spain. On May 2 1808 ( Dos de Mayo) the people of Madrid rebelled against the occupation of the city by French troops provoking a brutal repression Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. Joachim-Napoléon Murat (born Joachim Murat) ( Gioacchino Napoleone Murat) ( March 25 1767 &ndash October 13 1815) [16]
The next day, immortalized by Goya in his painting, The Third of May 1808, the French army shot hundreds of Madrid citizens in retaliation. The Third of May 1808 (also known as es ''El tres de mayo de 1808 en Madrid'', or es ''Los fusilamientos de la montaña del Príncipe Pío'', or Similar reprisals were repeated in other cities and continued for days, with no military effect but to strengthen the resistance; soon afterwards, bloody, spontaneous fighting known as guerrilla ("little war") erupted in much of Spain; the term "guerrilla" has been used ever since to describe such combat. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc [17] The tiny province of Asturias rose up in arms, cast out its French governor on May 25 and "declared war on Napoleon at the height of his greatness. The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. "[18] Within weeks, all the Spanish provinces had followed its example. [19] Mobs butchered 338 French citizens in Valencia. Every French ship of the line anchored at Cádiz was bombarded and captured. A ship-of-the-line was a type of naval warship constructed from the 17th century through the mid-19th century to take part in the the naval tactic known as the Line of battle [20] Napoleon had unwittingly provoked a total war against the Spaniards, a mistake from which the French Empire would never truly recover. Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a Belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at his disposal [21]
The deteriorating strategic situation forced France to increase its military commitments – in February, Napoleon had boasted that 12,000 men could conquer Spain;[22] by June, 165,120 troops were rushing into the country in an effort to control the crisis. Agustina Raimunda María Saragossa Doménech, or Agustina de Aragón, ( March 4, 1786 - May 29, 1857) was a famous Spanish Zaragoza, also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza province and of the autonomous community and former [23] The main French army of 80,000 men held only a narrow strip of central Spain stretching from Pamplona and San Sebastián in the north through to Madrid and Toledo to the south. For other meanings see Pamplona (disambiguation. Pamplona ( Basque: Iruñea or Iruña) is the capital city of Navarre Donostia-San Sebastián ( Basque: Donostia, IPA; Spanish: San Sebastián, known officially as Donostia-San Sebastián Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain The French in Madrid took shelter behind an additional 30,000 troops under Moncey. Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey, 1st Duc de Conegliano ( July 31, 1754 &ndash April 20, 1842) Marshal of France Junot, meanwhile, stood stranded in Portugal, cut off by 300 miles (480 km) of hostile territory. Jean-Andoche Junot, 1st Duc d' Abrantès ( October 23, 1771 &ndash July 29, 1813) was a French General
From Murat's optimistic reports, Napoleon believed the uprisings would die down and the country settle into order if his brother held on to the throne in Madrid while French flying columns seized and pacified Spain's major cities. A flying column, in military organization is an independent corps of troops usually composed of all arms to which a particular task is assigned To this end, General Dupont led 24,430 men south toward Seville and Cádiz; Marshal Bessières moved into Aragón and Old Castile with 25,000 men, aiming to capture Santander with one hand and Saragossa with the other; General Moncey marched toward Valencia with 29,350 men; and General Duhesme marshalled 12,710 troops in Catalonia and put Gerona under siege. Pierre-Antoine, Comte Dupont de l'Étang (1765-1840 was a French General of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars Seville ( Spanish: Sevilla, see also different names) is the artistic cultural and financial capital of southern Spain. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight Jean-Baptiste Bessières, 1st Duc d' Istria ( August 6, 1768 &ndash May 1, 1813) was a Marshal of France Aragon ( Spanish: "Aragón") is an autonomous community of Spain. Old Castile ( Castilla la Vieja) is a historic region of Spain, which included territory that later corresponded to the provinces of politically Santander (now The port city of Santander is the capital of the autonomous community of Cantabria situated on the north coast of Spain between Asturias (to the west and Zaragoza, also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza province and of the autonomous community and former Valencia ( Valencian: València, Valencia Spanish phonology --> is the capital of the Spanish autonomous Guillaume Philibert Duhesme ( July 7 1766, Bourgeuf, Burgundy – June 18 1815 near Waterloo) was a French Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. The Siege of Gerona of May 6 1809, sometimes called the Third Siege of Gerona (after two battles in 1808 involved the French Grande [24] Historians have concluded that Napoleon, having no respect for the "insolent" Spanish militias which everywhere opposed him,[25] tried to do too much with too little.
The signs of trouble came quickly: Catalan militia (somatén) virtually overran Barcelona and French units attempting to break the ring were turned back at the Bruc with heavy casualties. The Catalans are the people from Catalonia, an Autonomous community of Spain, including people originating in that region but living elsewhere The Miquelets (in Spanish: Miqueletes or Migueletes) were irregular local troops in Catalonia, Spain who derived their name The two Battles of the Bruch were engagements fought successively between a French column and a body of Spanish volunteers and mercenaries on June 4 Gerona twice resisted all efforts to conquer it. [26] At Saragossa, French overtures for an honorable capitulation met with the laconic reply, "War to the knife. The First Siege of Saragossa ( Zaragoza) was a bloody struggle in the Peninsular War. "[27] General Palafox and the Spaniards defied the French for three months, fighting inch by inch, corp à corp in the streets, and finally forcing Lefebvre to lift the siege in August and limp away in defeat. Don José de Palafox y Melzi Duke of Saragossa ( es: José Rebolledo de Palafox y Melci duque de Zaragoza) (1776 Zaragoza &ndash Urban warfare is modern warfare conducted in Urban areas such as Towns and cities. Charles comte Lefebvre-Desnouettes or Desnoettes ( 1773 - 22 May 1822) was a French cavalry General who later emigrated to the Moncey's push toward the coast ended in defeat outside the walls of Valencia, where 1,000 French recruits fell trying to storm a city whipped into a frenzy by the clergy. The First Battle of Valencia was an attack on the Spanish city of Valencia on June 26, 1808, early in the Peninsular War. Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. Making short work of Spanish counterattacks, Moncey began a long retreat, harried at every step. [28] After storming and sacking Cordoba, Dupont, cowed by the mass hostility of the Andalusians, broke off his offensive and retired to Andujar. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Andújar (the ancient Illiturgi or Slilurgi) a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaén; on the right bank of the river Guadalquivir
Only in the north did the French find a measure of success. In June, General Lasalle's cavalry trampled General Cuesta's small, improvised army at Cabezón and unbarred the road to Valladolid. General Antoine Charles Louis Collinet comte de Lasalle ( 10 May, 1775 &ndash 6 July, 1809) was a French cavalry General during the Revolutionary Gregorio García de la Cuesta y Fernández de Celis (1741 &ndash 1811 was a prominent Spanish General of the Peninsular War known for his participation The Battle of Cabezón was an engagement early in the Peninsular War on June 12, 1808 between a small Spanish militia force (grandiloquently ||-||} is an industrial city and it is a Municipality in north-central Spain, upon the Pisuerga River and within the Ribera del Duero wine-making region When Bessières' march on Santander was checked by a string of partisan attacks in July, the French turned back and found Blake and Cuesta with their combined army atop Medina del Rio Seco. The Battle of Medina de Rioseco was fought during the Peninsular War on July 14, 1808 and resulted in the defeat of the only Spanish army The Spanish generals, at Cuesta's insistence, were making a dash towards the vulnerable French supply lines at Valladolid. The two armies deployed on July 14, Cuesta unwisely leaving a gap between his troops and Blake's. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. The French poured into the hole and, after a sharp fight against Blake, swept the motley Spanish army from the field, putting Old Castile firmly back in Napoleon's hands.
At a stroke, Bessières' victory salvaged the strategic position of the French army in northern Spain. The Spanish Army ( Ejército de Tierra in Spanish; literally "Land Army" is one of oldest active armies in the world and a branch of the Spanish The Battle of Bailén was contested between the Spanish regular army, led by Generals Francisco Castaños and Theodor von Reding, and The road to Madrid lay open to Joseph, and the failures at Girona, Valencia, and Saragossa were forgotten; all that remained was to reinforce Dupont and allow him to force his way south through Andalusia. A delighted Napoleon asserted that "if Marshal Bessières has been able to beat the Army of Galicia with few casualties and small effort, General Dupont will be able to overthrow everybody he meets. "[29] Just a few days later however, Dupont was sorely defeated at Bailén and had to surrender his entire Army Corps to General Castaños. The Battle of Bailén was contested between the Spanish regular army, led by Generals Francisco Castaños and Theodor von Reding, and This article is about a military unit For alternative meanings see Corps (disambiguation. For the Mexican town see Castaños. Don Francisco Javier Castaños Aragorri Urioste y Olavide Count of Castaños y Aragones
The catastrophe was total. With the loss of 24,000 troops, Napoleon's military machine in Spain abruptly collapsed. Joseph and the French command panicked and ordered a general retreat to the Ebro, abandoning Madrid and undoing all of Bessières' hard-fought gains. The Ebro ( Ebre) is Spain 's most voluminous river Its source is in Fontibre ( Cantabria) Europe trembled at this first check to the hitherto unbeatable Imperial armies – a Bonaparte had been chased from his throne; tales of Spanish heroism inspired Austria and showed the force of national resistance. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Bailén set in motion the rise of the Fifth Coalition against Napoleon. The War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809 pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire and the United Kingdom against Napoleon 's French Empire and [30]
British intervention (August 1808)
Before the Peninsular War, British military operations on mainland Europe had been marked by bungling half-measures and a series of failures (the 1809 Walcheren expedition being the last of these). The Walcheren Campaign was an unsuccessful British expedition to the Netherlands in 1809 intended to open another front in the Austrian Empire The British Army was not large enough to operate on its own against the French, and without strong allies, Britain had been forced to withdraw from Europe. The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. On 18 June, the Portuguese uprising broke out. Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries The popular uprisings in Portugal and Spain encouraged the British to commit substantial forces once again and British propaganda was quick to capture the novelty of the situation; for the first time, peoples, not princes, were in rebellion against the "Great Disturber".
In August 1808, British forces (including the King's German Legion) landed in Portugal under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington. The First Siege of Saragossa ( Zaragoza) was a bloody struggle in the Peninsular War. January Suchodolski ( Grodno, September 19, 1797 &ndash March 20, 1875, Boimie near Siedlce) was a Polish Lieutenant General is a Military rank used in many countries The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages where the title of Lieutenant General was held by the Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c Wellesley checked Delaborde's forces at Roliça on August 17, while the Portuguese Observation Army of Bernardino Freire contained Loison. Henri François Delaborde (1764 - 1833 was a French General in the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars. The Battle of Roliça ( 17 August 1808) the British under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated the French under General Henri Delaborde Events 986 - A Byzantine army was destroyed in the pass of Trajan's Gate by the Bulgarians under the Comitopuli This is an Order of battle for the Battle of Vimeiro that was fought 20 August 1808. On August 20, the Anglo–Portuguese held their line at the Vimeiro and repulsed Junot. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine In the Battle of Vimeiro ( August 21 1808) the British under General Arthur Wellesley defeated the French under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot, 1st Duc d' Abrantès ( October 23, 1771 &ndash July 29, 1813) was a French General Wellesley, however, was considered too junior an officer to command the newly-reinforced expedition to Portugal and was replaced by Harry Burrard, who proceeded to grant Junot very favourable armistice terms, allowing for his unmolested evacuation from Portugal – courtesy of the Royal Navy – under the controversial Convention of Sintra in August. Sir Harry Burrard 1st Baronet ( 1 June 1755 – 17 October 1813) was a British General during the Peninsular War. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) The Convention of Sintra (or Cintra was an agreement signed on August 30, 1808 during the Peninsular War. The British commanders were ordered back to England for an inquiry into Sintra, leaving Sir John Moore to head the 30,000-strong British force. Sir John Moore, KB (13 November 1761 &ndash 16 January 1809 was a British soldier and General
The role of the Royal Navy in supply, convoy protection, and intelligence-gathering around the Iberian Peninsula in 1808 was vital to eventual allied success. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) A convoy is a group of Vehicles (of any type but usually motor vehicles or ships traveling together for mutual support Vice-Admiral Lord Collingwood's Mediterranean Fleet bottled up the remaining French fleet, stationed at Toulon since the disaster of Trafalgar. Vice Admiral is a naval rank equivalent to Lieutenant General in seniority Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood 1st Baron Collingwood ( 26 September 1748 &ndash 7 March 1810) was an Admiral of the Mediterranean Fleet redirects here For the Mediterranean Fleets of other countries see Mediterranean Fleet (disambiguation. Toulon ( Provençal Occitan: Tolon in classical norm or Touloun in Mistralian norm is a city in southern France and a large The Battle of Trafalgar ( 21 October 1805) was a historic sea battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the In June, General La Romana orchestrated a remarkable escape from Denmark, via Gothenburg, by slipping the better part of his Division of the North aboard a British squadron, which set sail for Santander. Gothenburg ( Swedish:) /jœte'bɔrj/ is a city, a municipality, and an urban area on the west-coast of Sweden. [31] The presence of the Royal Navy along the coast of France and Spain slowed the French entry into eastern and southern Spain and drained their military resources in the area. Frigates commanded the strategic Gulf of Roses north of Barcelona, close to the French border, and were conspicuously involved in the defence of Rosas; Lord Cochrane held a cliff-top fortress against the French for nearly a month, destroying it when the main citadel capitulated to a superior French force. For the bird see Frigatebird. A frigate /ˈfrɪgɪt/ is a warship The Gulf of Roses ( Spanish: Golfo de Rosas, Catalan: Golf de Roses) is the most north eastern Bay on the Spanish coast Barcelona ( Catalan bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish baɾθeˈlona is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia [32]
Napoleon's campaign (October 1808–January 1809)
Bailén and the loss of Portugal convinced Napoleon of the peril he faced in Spain. Baron Antoine-Jean Gros ( March 16, 1771 - June 25, 1835) was a French painter, born in Paris Deeply disturbed by news of Sintra, the Emperor remarked, "I see that everybody has lost their head since the infamous capitulation of Bailén. I realise that I must go there myself to get the machine working again. "[33] The French, all but masters of Spain in June, stood with their backs to the Pyrenees, clutching at Navarre and Catalonia. The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. It was not known if even these two footholds could be maintained in the face of a Spanish attack.
However, no attack was forthcoming. The Spanish social fabric, shaken by the shock of rebellion, gave way to its crippling social and political tensions; the patriots stood divided on every question and their nascent war effort suffered accordingly. With the fall of the monarchy, constitutional power devolved to local juntas. In the Napoleonic Era, junta was the name chosen by several local administrations forming in Spain during the Peninsular War as a patriotic alternative These institutions interfered with the army and the business of war, undermined the tentative central government taking shape in Madrid,[34] and in some cases proved almost as dangerous to each other as to the French. [35] The British army in Portugal, meanwhile, was itself immobilized by logistical problems and bogged down in administrative disputes, and did not budge. Logistics is the management of the flow of Goods, Information and other resources including Energy and people between the point of origin and the point
Consequently, months of inaction passed at the front, the revolution having "temporarily crippled Patriot Spain at the very moment when decisive action could have changed the whole course of the war. "[36] While the allies inched forward, a vast consolidation of bodies and bayonets from the far reaches of the French Empire brought 100,000 veterans of the Grande Armée into Spain, led in person by Napoleon and his Marshals. The Marshal of France (Maréchal de France and pl Maréchaux de France is a military distinction in contemporary France, not a Military rank. [37] With his Armée d'Espagne of 278,670 men drawn up on the Ebro, facing a scant 80,000 raw, disorganized Spanish troops, the Emperor announced to the Spanish deputies:
| “ | I am here with the soldiers who conquered at Austerlitz, at Jena, at Eylau. The Battle of Austerlitz (Bitva u Slavkova also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories effectively destroying the The twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt (older name Auerstädt were fought on October 14, 1806 on the plateau west of the river Saale The Battle of Eylau or Battle of Preussisch-Eylau (February 7–8 1807 was a bloody and inconclusive battle between Napoléon's Grande Armée and Who can withstand them? Certainly not your wretched Spanish troops who do not know how to fight. I shall conquer Spain in two months and acquire the rights of a conqueror. | ” |
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—Napoleon Bonaparte[38] |
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Napoleon led the French on a "brilliant"[39] offensive involving a massive double envelopment of the Spanish lines. The pincer movement or double envelopment is a basic element of Military strategy which has been used to some extent in many Wars and is considered The attack began in November and has been described as "an avalanche of fire and steel. "[40]
In the west, however, one Spanish wing slipped the noose when Marshal Lefebvre failed to encircle the Army of Galicia after a premature and indecisive attack at Pancorbo; General Blake drew his artillery back to safety and the bloodied Spanish infantry followed in good order. Charles comte Lefebvre-Desnouettes or Desnoettes ( 1773 - 22 May 1822) was a French cavalry General who later emigrated to the The Battle of Pancorbo (or Zornoza was one of the opening engagements in Napoleon's invasion of Spain. Lefebvre and Victor offered a careless chase that ended in humiliation at Valmaseda where their scattered troops were roughly handled by La Romana's newly repatriated Spanish veterans and narrowly escaped to safety. Claude Victor-Perrin, 1st Duc de Belluno ( 7 December 1764 &ndash 1 March 1841) was a Marshal of France The Battle of Valmaseda took place on November 5, 1808, during Lieutenant-General Blake 's retreat from superior French armies Don Pedro Caro y Sureda 3rd marqués de La Romana ( October 2, 1761 &ndash January 23, 1811) was a distinguished Spanish
The campaign raced to a swift conclusion in the south, where Napoleon's main army overran the unprotected Spanish centre in a devastating attack near Burgos. The Battle of Burgos was fought on November 7, 1808, during the Peninsular War. The Spanish militias, untrained and unable to form infantry squares, scattered in the face of massed French cavalry, while the stubborn Spanish and Walloon Guards stood their ground in vain and were chewed up by Lasalle and his sabreurs. An infantry square is a combat formation an Infantry unit formed in close order assumes when threatened with Cavalry attack The Walloon Guards were an infantry Corps originally recruited in the region now known as Belgium, mainly in Catholic Wallonia, for the The Royal Guard ( Guardia Real) is an independent unit of the Spanish Army dedicated to the military protection of H General Antoine Charles Louis Collinet comte de Lasalle ( 10 May, 1775 &ndash 6 July, 1809) was a French cavalry General during the Revolutionary Marshal Lannes with a powerful force then smashed through the tottering Spanish right wing at Tudela on November 23, routing Castaños and adding a new inscription to the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. The Battle of Tudela was a battle of the Peninsular War fought on November 23, 1808 near Tudela, Spain. Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of For the Mexican town see Castaños. Don Francisco Javier Castaños Aragorri Urioste y Olavide Count of Castaños y Aragones The Arc de Triomphe is a monument in Paris, France that stands in the centre of the Place Charles de Gaulle also known as the Place de l'Étoile.
Finally, Blake's isolated army did an about-face on November 17 and dug in at Espinosa. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers The Battle of Espinosa a battle of the Napoleonic Wars, fought on November 10 and November 11, 1808 at the township of Espinosa de los His lines shook off French attacks for a day and night of vicious fighting before cracking the next day. Blake again outmarched Soult and escaped with a rump of the army to Santander, but the Spanish front had been torn apart and the Imperial armies raced forward over undefended provinces. Napoleon flung 45,000 men south into the Sierra de Guadarrama which shielded Madrid and what little remained of Spain's armies. The Sierra de Guadarrama (for Spanish: Guadarrama mountain range) is a mountain chain spanning half of the Sistema Central (a Mountain range
The mountains hardly slowed Napoleon at all: at Somosierra pass on November 30, his Polish and Guard cavalry squadrons made an heroic charge through raking fire to overrun General San Juan's artillery emplacements. In the Battle of Somosierra (La batalla de Somosierra ( November 30, 1808) a heavily outnumbered Spanish force failed to prevent Napoleon from capturing The Polish cavalry (kawaleria can trace its origins back to the days of Medieval mounted Knights. In the Battle of Somosierra (La batalla de Somosierra ( November 30, 1808) a heavily outnumbered Spanish force failed to prevent Napoleon from capturing Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats The Polish cavalry (kawaleria can trace its origins back to the days of Medieval mounted Knights. Benito de San Juan was a Spanish military officer and a notable commander of the Spanish forces during the Peninsular War. Within hours, the Emperor had forced the pass: San Juan's militias gave way before the relentless French infantry, while the Spanish royal artillerymen stuck by their guns and fought to the last. French patrols reached Madrid on December 1 and entered the city in triumph on December 4. Events 800 - Charlemagne judges the accusations against Pope Leo III in the Vatican "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Joseph Bonaparte was restored to his throne. San Juan retreated west to Talavera, where his mutinous conscripts shot him before dispersing.
General John Moore's small British army appeared on the scene, surprising a body of French cavalry at Sahagun in a confused attempt to save Madrid. Sir John Moore, KB (13 November 1761 &ndash 16 January 1809 was a British soldier and General The Battle of Sahagún ( December 21, 1808) was a cavalry clash in which the 15th Light Dragoons (Hussars defeated two regiments of French cavalry during Alerted to his whereabouts, the Imperial army forced Moore into a precipitate, disorderly retreat punctuated by stubborn rearguard actions at Benavente and Cacabelos. La Romana dutifully marched his tattered army to help his ally, but when British troops evacuated from Corunna in January 1809, the Spaniard had no escape and was defeated by Soult. A Coruña ( Spanish: La Coruña; Galician: A Coruña; also Corunna in English, and archaically The Groyne) is Moore was killed while directing the successful defence of the town in the Battle of Corunna. The Battle of Corunna (or La Corunna, A Coruña, La Coruña, or Elviña) on January 16 1809, was an attack by 16000 Some 26,000 sickly troops eventually reached Britain, 7,000 men having been lost over the course of the expedition. [41]
In Catalonia, Napoleon fed his faltering army strong reinforcements as early as October 1808, ordering Marshal St. Cyr with 17,000 men to the relief of Duhesme in Barcelona. Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Laurent de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, 1st Marquis de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr ( Toul, May 13, 1764 &ndash Hyères, March 17, 1830 Barcelona ( Catalan bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish baɾθeˈlona is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia Rosas fell to the French at the end of November, opening the path south for St. Cyr, who bypassed Girona and, after a remarkable forced march, fell upon and destroyed part of the Spanish army at Cardedeu, near Barcelona (December 18). Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the St. Cyr and Duhesme chased the retreating Spaniards under General Reding, capturing 1,200 men at Molins de Rey. Theodor von Reding ( July 5, 1755 &ndash April 23, 1809) was a Swiss General of the Napoleonic Wars most notable In February 1809, Reding led a reconstituted army against the French right wing and, after vigorous marching and countermarching, took a stand at Valls only to be ridden down and killed by French cavalry. The Battle of Valls was fought on 25 February 1809, during the Peninsular War between a French force under Marshal Gouvion Saint-Cyr and a Spanish
Only at Saragossa, still scarred from Lefebvre's bombardments that summer, was the Imperial charge halted once again, but only for a time. The French invested the city on December 20. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor. Lannes and Moncey committed two army corps (45,000 men) and considerable materiel to a second siege of the city, but their numbers and guns made no impression on the Spanish citizen-soldiers who, behind the walls of Saragossa, proved unmovable. The Second Siege of Saragossa was the French capture of the Spanish city of Zaragoza during the Peninsular War.
Palafox's second epic defence brought the city enduring national and international fame. [42][43] The Spaniards fought with a determination which never faltered; street by street, building by building, through pestilence and starvation; at times entrenching themselves in convents, at others putting their own homes to the torch. Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of A convent is a community of Priests religious brothers religious sisters or Nuns or the building used by the community particularly in the Roman Catholic Church Nearly all who stood with Palafox met their deaths,[44] but for two months, the Grande Armée did not set foot beyond the Ebro's shore. The Ebro ( Ebre) is Spain 's most voluminous river Its source is in Fontibre ( Cantabria) On February 20, 1809, the French left behind burnt-out ruins filled with 64,000 corpses. Events 1472 - Orkney and Shetland are left by Norway to Scotland, due to a Dowry payment Year 1809 ( MDCCCIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year [45][46] After only a little more than two months in Spain, Napoleon returned command to his marshals and went back to France, fairly satisfied with what he had accomplished.
British in Portugal (1809)
In March, Marshal Soult initiated the second invasion of Portugal through the northern corridor. Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, 1st Duc de Dalmatie (29 March 1769 26 November 1851 the Hand of Iron, was a French general and statesman named Initially repulsed in the Minho river by Portuguese militias, he then captured Chaves, Braga and, on March 29, 1809, Porto. Braga (ˈBrag-uh a city and municipality in northwestern Portugal, is the capital of the district of Braga, the oldest archdiocese Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1809 ( MDCCCIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Yet, the resistance of Silveira in Amarante and other northern cities isolated Soult in Porto and he embarked upon a gamble to become king of North Portugal. Amarante ( pron ɐmɐ'ɾɐ̃t(ɨ is a municipality in the district of Oporto, in northern Portugal.
In Portugal, Miguel Pereira Forjaz, the Secretary of War, had rebuilt the Portuguese army with money and arms received from the British. The Reform of the army, held up since 1806, was implemented. In a first phase some 20,000 were called to the regular army and 30,000 to militias. Later on, this number would grow to 50,000 in the army and another 50,000 in militias, in addition to 120,000 Ordenanças and voluntary units.
Wellesley returned to Portugal in April 1809 to command the Anglo–Portuguese forces. He strengthened the British army with the recently formed Portuguese regiments organized by Forjaz and the Governors of the realm and adapted by General Beresford to the British way of campaigning. These new forces defeated Soult at the Battle of Grijo (May 10–May 11) and then the Second Battle of Porto (May 12). The Battle of Grijó (griˈʒɔ ( May 10 1809 &ndash May 11 1809) was a battle that ended up in victory for the Anglo-Portuguese army commanded Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople In the (Second Battle of Oporto (or the Battle of the Douro) General Arthur Wellesley 's British army took the city of Porto defeating Marshal Nicolas Soult Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. All other northern cities were captured by Silveira.
Leaving the Portuguese to take care of their newly-won territory, Wellesley advanced into Spain to join up with the Spanish army of Gregorio de la Cuesta. Gregorio García de la Cuesta y Fernández de Celis (1741 &ndash 1811 was a prominent Spanish General of the Peninsular War known for his participation The combined allied force had a good opportunity to defeat Victor's I Corps at Talavera, and Wellington prepared for an assault on July 23. The I Corps of the Grande Armée was a military unit during the Napoleonic Wars. Events 1632 - Three hundred colonists bound for New France depart from Dieppe France. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day, July 24. Events 1132 - Battle of Nocera between Ranulf II of Alife and Roger II of Sicily. [47] The delay provided the French the chance withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile – Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating two British divisions advancing to cover their retreat.
The next day, July 27, the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by British infantry in line, forcing the French to withdraw. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. The Battle of Talavera was a costly victory that left the allies precariously exposed, so they retreated westwards, abandoned several thousand of their own wounded to the Spanish who transferred them in turn to the French. The Battle of Talavera ( July 27 &ndash 28, 1809) was a bloody yet inconclusive battle seventy miles southwest of Madrid, Spain Although the Spanish had promised food to the British if they advanced into Spain, not only was no food forthcoming, but Spanish troops threatened to pillage any town that sold food to their 'allies', forcing the British to continue retreating back to Portugal. The British in the peninsula never completely trusted the Spanish again. Wellesley was made Viscount Wellington for his victory at Talavera. The Dukedom of Wellington, derived from Wellington in Somerset, is an hereditary title and the senior rank in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Later that year, however, Spanish armies were badly mauled at the Battle of Ocana and the Battle of Alba de Tormes. In the Battle of Ocana or Ocaña ( November 19, 1809) French forces under Marshal Soult and King Joseph Bonaparte In the Battle of Alba de Tormes, fought on November 26, 1809, a French army commanded by Major General Jean Marchand attacked and routed Lieutenant-General
After his disappointing experience with the Spaniards, and fearing a new French attack, Wellesley made the decision to strengthen Portugal's defences. To protect Lisbon, he took a plan from Major Neves Costa and ordered the construction of a strong line of 162 forts along key roads and entrenchements and earthworks, the Lines of Torres Vedras. The Lines of Torres Vedras were lines of forts built in secrecy to defend Lisbon during the Peninsular War.
Stalemate (1810–1811)
The French reinvaded Portugal in July 1810 with an army of around 60,000 led by Marshal Masséna. The first significant clash was at the Battle of Coa. The Battle of the River Côa ( July 24, 1810) occurred during the Peninsular War period of the Napoleonic Wars. Later on, Masséna took "the worst route in Portugal. " At the Battle of Buçaco on September 27, he suffered a tactical defeat with a careless attack on a strong position, but he soon forced the allies to retreat to the Lines. The Battle of Bussaco (or Buçaco, buˈsaku in Portuguese ( September 27, 1810) resulted in the defeat of French forces by Lord Wellington's Events 489 - Odoacer attacks Theodoric at the Battle of Verona and is defeated again The fortifications were so impressive that, after a small attack at Sobral on October 14, a stalemate ensued. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces As Charles Oman wrote, "On that misty October 14th morning, at Sobral, the Napoleonic tide attained its highest watermark, then it ebbed. Sir Charles William Chadwick Oman ( January 12 1860 &ndash June 23 1946) was a British military historian of the early " The Portuguese population had subjected the area in front of the lines to a scorched earth policy and the French were eventually forced to withdraw due to disease and a lack of food and other supplies. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between
The allies were reinforced by the arrival of fresh British troops in early 1811 and began an offensive. Seville ( Spanish: Sevilla, see also different names) is the artistic cultural and financial capital of southern Spain. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. Year 1808 ( MDCCCVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year A French force was beaten at Barrosa on March 5 as part of an unsuccessful manoeuvre to break up the siege of Cádiz, and Masséna was forced to withdraw from Portugal after an allied victory at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro (May 3–5). The Battle of Barrosa (5 March 1811 was an unsuccessful French attack on a larger Anglo-Spanish force attempting to lift the siege of Cádiz, Spain during the Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight In the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro ( May 3 - 5, 1811) the Anglo-Portuguese army under Viscount Wellington checked an attempt by the French Masséna had lost 25,000 men in the fighting in Portugal and was replaced by Auguste Marmont. Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de Marmont, 1st Duc de Ragusa ( 20 July 1774 &ndash 22 March 1852) was a French Soult came from the South to threaten Extremadura, and captured the fortress town of Badajoz before returning to Andalusia with most of his army. Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Badajoz - (IPA, formerly written Badajos in English the capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz in the autonomous community Andalusia (Andalucía is an autonomous community of Spain. It is the most populous and the second largest in terms of land area An Anglo–Portuguese and Spanish army led by Marshal William Beresford marched to try and retake the town; they laid siege to the French garrison Soult had left behind, but Soult regathered his army and marched to relieve the siege. Beresford moved his besieging army from Badajoz to intercept the marching French, and after the Battle of Albuera on May 16, Soult was forced to retreat back to Seville. The Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811 was an indecisive battle during the Peninsular War. Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire.
The war now fell into a temporary lull, the numerically superior French being unable to find an advantage and coming under increasing pressure from Spanish guerrilla activity. The French had upwards of 350,000 soldiers in L'Armée de l'Espagne, but the vast majority, over 200,000, was deployed to protect the French lines of supply, rather than as substantial fighting units. Meanwhile, the Spaniards drafted the liberal 1812 Constitution of Cádiz. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated by the Cádiz Cortes, the national legislative assembly ( Cortes Generales "General Courts"
Turning of the tide (1812)
1883.JPG/170px-Monumento_aos_Heróis_da_guerra_Peninsular_(Lisboa)1883.JPG)
| “ | The emperor wants me to take the offensive. Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. . . but his Majesty does not realize that the smallest movement in these parts expends great quantities of resources, especially of horses. . . To make a requisition on even the poorest village we have to send a detachment of 200 men and, to be able to live, we have to scatter over great distances. | ” |
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—Marshall August Marmount[48] |
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In January 1812, Napoleon approved the full annexation of Catalonia into the French Empire. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Its territory was divided in départements (Ter, Sègre, Montserrat and Bouches-de-l'Èbre). In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division Looking for the approval of the local population, Catalan was declared the official language in those departments together with French. Catalan ˈkætəˌlæn ( català kətəˈla or) is a Romance language, the national and official language of Andorra, and a co-official French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people However, it did not succeed because of the historical aversion that the Catalans had against the French, and guerrilla activity continued in Catalonia. The Catalans are the people from Catalonia, an Autonomous community of Spain, including people originating in that region but living elsewhere Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion (
Wellington renewed the allied advance into Spain just after New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing the fortified towns of Ciudad Rodrigo on January 19 and Badajoz, after a costly assault, on April 6. History Middle Ages In 1110, Count Rodrigo González Girón repopulated the site and gave it his name Civitas Roderici (Latin 'City of Roderick' Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. Badajoz - (IPA, formerly written Badajos in English the capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz in the autonomous community In the Battle of Badajoz ( March 16 - April 6, 1812) an Anglo - Portuguese army under the Earl of Wellington, besieged Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Both towns were pillaged by the troops. The allied army took Salamanca on June 17, just as Marmont approached – the two forces finally met on July 22. Geography The city lies on a mountain by the Tormes River which is crossed by a bridge 150 m long built on 26 arches fifteen of which are of Roman origin, while Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of The Battle of Salamanca was a damaging defeat to the French, and Marshal Marmont was severely wounded. The Battle of Salamanca saw an Anglo - Portuguese army under General Arthur Wellesley defeat Marshal Auguste Marmont 's French As the French regrouped, the Anglo–Portuguese entered Madrid on August 6 and advanced towards Burgos, before retreating all the way back to Portugal when renewed French concentrations threatened to trap them. Madrid (pronounced in English in Spanish and colloquially in Spain) is the Capital and largest city of Spain. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. As a consequence of the Salamanca campaign the French were forced to end their long siege of Cadiz and to permanently evacuate the provinces of Andalusia and Asturias. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight Andalusia (Andalucía is an autonomous community of Spain. It is the most populous and the second largest in terms of land area The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an
Allied victory (1813–1814)
French hopes of recovery were stricken by Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. He had taken 30,000 soldiers from the hard-pressed Armée de l'Espagne, and, starved of reinforcements and replacements, the French position became increasingly unsustainable as the allies renewed the offensive in May 1813.
In a strategic move, Wellington planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander. The port city of Santander is the capital of the autonomous community of Cantabria situated on the north coast of Spain between Asturias (to the west and The Anglo–Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos; they then outflanked the French army, forcing Joseph Bonaparte into the valley of the River Zadorra. At the Battle of Vitoria, on June 21, the 65,000 men of Joseph were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards. In the Battle of Vitoria ( June 21 1813) General Arthur Wellesley Marquess of Wellington, and his Portuguese and Spanish allies finally Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. Wellesley pursued and dislodged the French from San Sebastián, which was sacked and burnt. Donostia-San Sebastián ( Basque: Donostia, IPA; Spanish: San Sebastián, known officially as Donostia-San Sebastián
The allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July. The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés Soult was given command of the French forces and began a counter-offensive, dealing the allied generals two sharp defeats at the Battle of Maya and the Battle of Roncesvalles. The Battle of Maya ( 25 July 1813) was a battle between French and British forces during the Peninsular War (1808-1814 The Battle of Roncesvalles (Roncevaux ( 25 July 1813) was a battle between French and Anglo-Portuguese forces during the Peninsular War (1808-1814 Yet, he was severely repulsed by the Anglo–Portuguese, lost momentum, and finally fled after the allied victory at the Battle of Sorauren (July 28 and July 30). The Battle of Sorauren was part of a series of engagements in late July 1813 called the Battle of the Pyrenees in which a combined British and Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. Events 1419 - First Defenestration of Prague. 1502 - Christopher Columbus lands at Guanaja in the Bay Islands off
This week of campaigning, called the Battle of the Pyrenees, is perhaps Wellington's finest. The Battle of the Pyrenees was a large-scale offensive launched on 25 July 1813 by Marshal Nicolas Soult from the Pyrénées region on Napoleon’s The adversaries' numbers were balanced, he was fighting very far from his supply line, the French were defending their territory, and yet he won by a mixture of manoeuvre, shock and fire, seldom equalled in the war. It was mountain warfare and Wellington described the Portuguese Army as "The fighting cocks of the (allied) Army".
On October 7, after Wellington received news of the reopening of hostilities in Germany, the allies finally crossed into France, fording the Bidasoa river. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) The Bidasoa (Bidassoa is a river in the Basque Country of northern Spain that runs largely south to north On December 11, a beleaguered and desperate Napoleon agreed to a separate peace with Spain under the Treaty of Valençay, under which he would release and recognize Ferdinand in exchange for a complete cessation of hostilities. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Valençay is a commune in the Indre department in central France. But the Spanish had no intention of trusting Napoleon, and the fighting continued.
The Peninsular War went on through the allied victories of Vera pass, the Battle of Nivelle, and the Battle of Nive near Bayonne (December 10–14 1813), the Battle of Orthez (February 27, 1814) and the Battle of Toulouse (April 10), the latter occurring after Napoleon's abdication. The Battle of Nivelle ( November 10, 1813) took place in front of the River Nivelle near the end of the Peninsular War (1808-1814 The Battles of the Nive (9-13 December 1813 were fought towards the end of the Peninsular War. Bayonne ( French: Bayonne bajɔn Gascon Occitan and Basque: Baiona) is a city and commune of southwest The Battle of Orthez ( February 27, 1814) saw Field Marshall Arthur Wellesley's (Marquess of Wellington Anglo-Portuguese army defeat a French Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Battle of Toulouse ( April 10 1814) was one of the final battles of the Napoleonic Wars, four days after Napoleon 's surrender of Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama
Guerrilla war
During the war, the British gave aid to Portuguese militia levies and Spanish guerrillas, who tied down thousands of French troops. The British gave this aid because it cost them much less than it would have to equip British soldiers to face the French in conventional warfare. This was one of the most successful partisan wars in history and is the origin of the word guerrilla in the English language (from Spanish Guerra de guerrillas or "War of little wars"). A partisan is a member of an Irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc However, this guerrilla warfare was costly to both sides. Not only did the 'patriotic' Spaniards trouble the French troops, they also petrified their countrymen with a combination of forced conscription and looting of towns. Many of the partisans were, in fact, either fleeing the law or trying to get rich, although later in the war the authorities tried to make the guerrillas militarily reliable, and many of them formed regular army units, like Espoz y Mina's "Cazadores de Navarra", among others. Francisco Espoz y Mina ( 17 June 1781 – 24 December 1836) was a Spanish guerrilla leader and general
The idea of forming the guerrillas into an armed force had positive and negative effects. On the one hand, uniform and stronger military discipline would stop men from running off into the streets and disappearing from the band. However, the more disciplined the unit was, the easier it was for the French troops to catch them when they sprang an ambush. Only a few partisan leaders formed up with the authorities; most did so just to lay off criminal charges and to retain the effective status of an officer in the Spanish army, so their weaponry, clothes and food would be paid for.
The guerrilla style of fighting was the Spanish military's single most effective application. Most organized attempts on the part of regular Spanish forces to take on the French led to their defeat. However, once the battle was lost and the soldiers reverted to their guerrilla roles, they effectively tied down greater numbers of French troops over a wider area with much less expenditure of men, energy, and supplies. Wellington's final success in the peninsula is often said to be largely due to the collapse and demoralization of the French military structure in Spain caused by the guerrillas.
Role of intelligence
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Intelligence played a crucial role in the successful prosecution of the war by the British after 1810. On May 2 1808 ( Dos de Mayo) the people of Madrid rebelled against the occupation of the city by French troops provoking a brutal repression Spanish and Portuguese guerrillas were asked to capture messages from French couriers. From 1811 onwards, these dispatches were often either partially or wholly enciphered. In Cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an Algorithm for performing Encryption and Decryption &mdash a series of well-defined steps
George Scovell of Wellington's General Staff was given the job of deciphering them. George Scovell (1774 &ndash 1861 was a member of the Quartermaster 's staff of the British Army in Iberia during the Peninsular War. At first, the ciphers used were fairly simple and he received help from other members of the General Staff. However, beginning in 1812, a much stronger cipher, originally devised for diplomatic messages, came into use and Scovell was left to work on this himself. He steadily broke it, and the knowledge of French troop movements and deployments was used to great effect in most of the engagements described above. The French never realised that the code had been broken and continued to use it until their code tables were captured at the Battle of Vitoria.
Consequences
Spain
-
For more details on this topic, see Mid-nineteenth century Spain. Spain in the mid-nineteenth century was a country in turmoil Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814 a massively destructive " war of independence " ensued
King Joseph was cheered initially by Spanish afrancesados ("Frenchified"), who believed that collaboration with France would bring modernisation and liberty. Afrancesado ( " Francophiles quot or "turned- French " "Francisized" was the term used to denote Spanish and Portuguese Collaborationism, can describe the Treason of cooperating with enemy Forces occupying one's Country. An example was the abolition of the Spanish Inquisition. The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain However, priesthood and patriots stirred up agitation among the populace, which became widespread after the French army's first examples of repression (Madrid, 1808) were presented as fact to unite and enrage the people. The remaining afrancesados were exiled to France following the departure of French troops. The painter Francisco Goya was one of these afrancesados, and after the war he had to exile himself to France to avoid being prosecuted and perhaps lynched.
The pro-independence side included both traditionalists and liberals. The Third of May 1808 (also known as es ''El tres de mayo de 1808 en Madrid'', or es ''Los fusilamientos de la montaña del Príncipe Pío'', or Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal After the war, they would clash in the Carlist Wars, as new king Ferdinand VII, "the Desired One" (later "the Traitor king"), revoked all the changes made by the independent Cortes, which were summoned in Cádiz acting on his behalf to coordinate the provincial Juntas and resist the French. The Carlist Wars in Spain were the last major European Civil wars in which pretenders fought to establish their claim to a throne Early life In his youth he occupied the painful position of an heir apparent who was jealously excluded from all share in government by his parents and the royal favorite The Cortes Generales ( Spanish for General Courts or Cortes Españolas, Spanish Courts) is the Legislature of Spain. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight In the Napoleonic Era, junta was the name chosen by several local administrations forming in Spain during the Peninsular War as a patriotic alternative He restored absolute monarchy, prosecuted and put to death everyone suspected of liberalism, and altered the laws of royal succession in favour of his daughter Isabella II, thus starting a century of civil wars against the supporters of the former legal heir to the throne. "Isabella II" redirects here For the Queen of Jerusalem also known as Isabella II see Yolande of Jerusalem.
The liberal Cortes had approved the first Spanish Constitution on 19 March 1812, which was later nullified by the king. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated by the Cádiz Cortes, the national legislative assembly ( Cortes Generales "General Courts" Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 1812 ( MDCCCXII) a leap year started on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year In Spanish America, the Spanish and Criollo officials formed Juntas that swore allegiance to King Ferdinand. Criollo is a term that dates back to the Spanish colonial Casta system ( Caste system) of Latin America This experience of self-government led the later Libertadores (Liberators) to promote the independence of the Spanish–American colonies. Libertadores ( Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators" refers to the leaders of the revolutions which gained the nations of Latin America independence
French troops seized many of the extensive properties of the Catholic Church. Churches and convents were used as stables and barracks, and artworks were sent to France, leading to an impoverished Spanish cultural heritage. Allied armies also plundered Spanish towns and the countryside. Wellington recovered some of the artwork and offered to return it, but King Ferdinand gave them to him. These pieces can be viewed at the Duke's London home, Apsley House, and at his country estate, Stratfield Saye House. Apsley House, also known as Number One London, was the London residence of the Dukes of Wellington and stands alone at Hyde Park Corner Stratfield Saye House is a large Stately home at Stratfield Saye in the north-east of the English county of Hampshire.
Another notable effect of the war was the severe damage incurred by Spain's economy, devastated by the war, it continued to suffer in the political turbulence that followed. [49]
Portugal
The Peninsular War signified the traumatic entry of Portugal into the modern age. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Court's movement to Rio de Janeiro initiated the process of Brazil's state-building that eventually produced its independence. Rio de Janeiro ("River of January" ˈhiw dʒi ʒʌˈnejɾu in Brazilian Portuguese, /ˈriːoʊ di ʒəˈnɛroʊ/ in English is the second largest city of Brazil The skilful evacuation by the Portuguese Navy of more than 15,000 people from the Court, Administration, and Army was a bonus for Brazil and a blessing in disguise for Portugal, as it liberated the energies of the country. The Portuguese Navy (Marinha Portuguesa also known as Marinha de Guerra Portuguesa or as Armada Portuguesa) is the naval branch of the Portuguese The Governors of Portugal nominated by the absent king had a scant impact because of the successive French invasions and British occupation.
The role of the War Minister Miguel Pereira Forjaz was unique. A defence minister (or defense minister) is a Cabinet position which regulates the Armed forces in some sovereign nations Wellington held him as the ablest man in Portugal. [50] With the Portuguese Staff, he managed to build a regular army of 55,000 men and a further 50,000 as national guard milicias and a variable number of home guard ordenanças, perhaps totalling more than 100,000. In an 1812 letter to Baron Stein, the Russian Court Minister, Forjaz recommended a "scorched earth" policy and the trading of time for space as the only way to defeat a French invasion. Heinrich Friedrich Karl Reichsfreiherr vom und zum Stein ( October 25, 1757 &ndash June 29, 1831) commonly known as Baron vom A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, ordered his generals to use Wellington's Portuguese strategy and avoid battles to starve Napoleon's Grande Armée. Alexander I of Russia ( Russian: Александр I Павлович / Aleksandr I Pavlovich (23 December 1777 – November 19 1825 served as Emperor of
The nation at arms had a similar impact on Portugal as the French Revolution on France. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an A new class, tried, disciplined, and experienced by war against the French Empire, would assert Portuguese independence. Marshal Beresford and 160 officers were retained after 1814 to lead Portugal's Army while the King was still in Brazil. Portuguese politics hinged on the project of a Luso–Brazilian United Kingdom, with the African colonies supplying slaves, Brazil manufacturing and Portugal the trade. By 1820, this became untenable: Portuguese Peninsular War officers expelled the British and began the liberal revolution at Porto on August 24. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River Liberal institutions were only consolidated after a civil war in 1832–34. The Liberal Wars, also known as the Portuguese Civil War, the War of the Two Brothers, or Miguelite War, was a war between progressive constitutionalists
Cultural
Prosper Mérimée's Carmen, on which Bizet's opera Carmen was based, is set during the war. Prosper Mérimée ( September 28, 1803 &ndash September 23, 1870) was a French dramatist historian, archaeologist "Carmen" is a Novella by Prosper Mérimée written and first published in 1845 Georges Bizet (25 October 1838 – 3 June 1875 was a French Composer and Pianist of the Romantic era Carmen is a French Opéra comique by Georges Bizet. The Libretto is by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy, based
Curro Jiménez was a very successful Spanish TV series about a generous bandit fighting against the French in Sierra Morena. Curro Jiménez was a successful Spanish TV series that aired on TVE1 from 22 December 1976 to 1979 The Sierra Morena is a Mountain range which stretches for 400 km East-West across southern Spain, forming the border of the central plateau (
The British Sharpe novels by Bernard Cornwell were a series of novels following the adventures of a British Army officer and were set, partly, during the Peninsular War. Richard Sharpe is the central character in Bernard Cornwell 's Sharpe series of Historical fiction stories Bernard Cornwell OBE (born February 23, 1944) is a prolific and popular English Historical novelist He is best known for his The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. They were later made into a series of television movies featuring actor Sean Bean as Sharpe (see Sharpe (TV Series)). An actor, actress, player or thespian (see terminology) is a person who Acts in a Dramatic production and who works Shaun Mark Bean (born 17 April 1959 is an English Film and stage Actor. Sharpe is a British series of Television dramas about Richard Sharpe, a fictional British soldier in the Napoleonic Wars.
The C. S. Forester novel Death to the French is set in the Peninsular War. Cecil Scott Forester was the Pen name of Cecil Louis Troughton Smith ( August 27 1899 – April 2, 1966) an English Death to the French is a 1932 novel of the Peninsular War during the Napoleonic Wars, written by C It concerns a private in a British Rifle Regiment who is cut off from his unit and joins a group of Portuguese guerrillas. The 1957 motion picture "The Pride and the Passion", also set during the Peninsular War, was based on Forester's novel "The Gun". The Pride and the Passion ( 1957) is a Historical film drama made by Stanley Kramer productions filmed in Technicolor and VistaVision
The Peninsular War saw the first use of "devices," or clasp bars, on medals. A medal is usually a Coin -like sculpted object of metal or other material that has been engraved with an Insignia, Portrait or other artistic rendering The Peninsular Medal was issued to soldiers in Wellington's army, with a clasp for each major battle in which they participated. When four were issued, a Peninsular Cross was given, with each arm inscribed with the battle's name. Subsequent clasps were then added to the ribbon. Wellington's Peninsular Cross, featuring a unique nine clasps, can be seen on his uniform in the basement at Apsley House. Apsley House, also known as Number One London, was the London residence of the Dukes of Wellington and stands alone at Hyde Park Corner
Notes
- ^ Glover, p. 45. Some accounts mark the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal as the beginning of the war.
- ^ Glover, p 335. Denotes the date of the general armistice between France and the Sixth Coalition. In the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814 a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number
- ^ In French and in Spanish the war is called the "Spanish War of Independence" Guerre d'indépendance espagnole and Guerra de la Independencia Española respectively. It is also known as Guerra del Francès ("the War of the Frenchman") in Catalonia. Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. In Portugal it is Invasões Francesas (Portuguese: "French Invasions"). Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal.
- ^ Churchill, p. 258. "Nothing like this universal uprising of a numerous, ancient race and nation, all animated by one thought, had been seen before. . . For the first time the forces unchained by the French Revolution, which Napoleon had disciplined and directed, met not kings or Old World hierarchies, but a whole population inspired by the religion and patriotism which. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an . . Spain was to teach to Europe. "
- ^ Laqueur, p. 350. Laqueur notes that the war was "one of the first occasions when guerrilla warfare had been waged on a large scale in modern times. "
- ^ Gates, pp. 33–34. Gates notes that much of the Grande Armée "was rendered unavailable for operations against Wellington because innumerable Spanish contingents kept materialising all over the country. In 1810, for example, when Massena invaded Portugal, the Imperial forces in the Peninsula totalled a massive 325,000 men, but only about one quarter of these could be spared for the offensive—the rest were required to contain the Spanish insurgents and regulars. This was the greatest single contribution that the Spaniards were to make and, without it, Wellington could not have maintained himself on the continent for long—let alone emerge triumphant from the conflict. "
- ^ Chandler, The Art of Warfare on Land, p. 164
- ^ Glover, p. 52. Glover notes that "the Spanish troops were no match for the French. They were ill-equipped and sketchily supplied. Their ranks were filled with untrained recruits. Their generals bickered among themselves. They lost heavily but their armies were not destroyed. Time and time again Spanish armies lost their artillery, their colours, their baggage. They suffered casualties on a scale that would have crippled a French or a British army. They never disintegrated. They would retire to some inaccessible fastness, reorganise themselves and reappear to plague the French as they had never been plagued before. "
- ^ Esdaile, p. 2
- ^ Gates, pp. 5–7 and Esdaile, pp. 2–5
- ^ Esdaile, pp. 7–8 and Gates, p. 8
- ^ Napoleon, Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène.
- ^ Esdaille, p. 300
- ^ Chandler, p. 605
- ^ Gates, p. 35. For example, the Army's 26 cavalry regiments of 15,000 men possessed only 9,000 horses.
- ^ Chandler, p. 610
- ^ Esdaile, pp. 302–303. Rebel groups sprung up on a local basis and were unaware of the resistance being prepared elsewhere in Spain. Esdaile asserts that the partisans were as committed to driving the ancien regime out of Spain as they were to fighting foreign armies, noting that the Patriots had no scruples about liquidating officials skeptical of their revolutionary program. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in
- ^ Churchill, p. 259
- ^ Gates, p. 12
- ^ Glover, p. 53
- ^ Chandler, p. 608. Chandler notes that Napoleon "never appreciated how independent the Spanish people were of their government; he misjudged the extent of their pride, of the tenacity of their religious faith, of their loyalty to Ferdinand. He anticipated that they would accept the change of regime without demur; instead he soon found himself with a war of truly national proportions on his hands. "
- ^ Chandler, p. 611
- ^ Gates, p. 162
- ^ Chandler, p. 611. Gates, pp. 181–182
- ^ Chandler, p. 614
- ^ Gates, p. 61
- ^ Gates, p. 77
- ^ Chandler, p. 614
- ^ Chandler, p. 616
- ^ Chandler, p. 617. "This was an historic occasion; news of it spread like wildfire throughout Spain and then all Europe. It was the first time since 1801 that a sizable French force had laid down its arms, and the legend of French invincibility underwent a severe shaking. Everywhere anti-French elements drew fresh inspiration from the tidings. The Pope published an open denunciation of Napoleon; Prussian patriots were heartened; and, most significantly of all, the Austrian war party began to secure the support of the Emperor Francis for a renewed challenge to the French Empire.
- ^ Chandler, p. 611
- ^ James, pp. 131–132
- ^ Chandler, p. 620
- ^ Chandler, p. 625. Chandler notes that "the particular interests of the provincial delegates made even the pretense of centralised government a travesty. "
- ^ Chandler, p. 621. John Lawrence Tone has questioned this assessment of the Spanish juntas on the grounds that it relies too much on the accounts of British officers and elites; these sources being patently unfair to the revolutionaries, "whom they despised for being Jacobins, Catholics, and Spaniards, not necessarily in that order. "
- ^ Esdaille, pp. 304–305. Esdaille notes that the Junta of Seville declared itself the supreme government of Spain and tried to annex neighbouring juntas by force.
- ^ Gates, p. 487
- ^ Glover, p. 55
- ^ Chandler, p. 631
- ^ Churchill, p. 262
- ^ Gates, p. 114
- ^ Glover, p. 89
- ^ Gates, p. 128. Gates notes that the siege "was a demonstration the French army was never to forget and . . . it was to inspire Spaniards to maintain replica struggles that have few parallels in the history of war.
- ^ Gates, p. 127. The military garrison of 44,000 left 8,000 survivors, 1,500 of them ill.
- ^ Glover, p. 89. 10,000 of these were French.
- ^ David A. Bell, Napoleon's Total War, TheHistoryNet. com
- ^ Gates, p. 177
- ^ Grant, p. 209
- ^ Esdaile, pp. 505–507
- ^ Oman (1908), Vol. III, p. 418
References
- Chandler, David G. (1995), The Campaigns of Napoleon, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-02-523660-1;
- Esdaile, Charles (2002), The Peninsular War, Penguin Books (published 2003), ISBN 0-140-27370-0;
- Gates, David (1986), The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War, Pimlico (published 2002), ISBN 0-7126-9730-6;
- Glover, Michael (1974), The Peninsular War 1807–1814: A Concise Military History, Penguin Classic Military History (published 2001), ISBN 0-141-39041-7;
- Grant, Reg (2005), Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat, Dorling Kindersley, ISBN 0-756-61360-4
- James, William (1826), The Naval History of Great Britain, vol. Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. V, Harding, Lepard and Co, <http://books.google.com/books?id=Am7WCEX4KekC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=cochrane+rosas&source=web&ots=wdpeNGW4dz&sig=_l1WYqhqzuPR56cG1i7SwNDkAY0#PPP7,M1>. Retrieved on 11 January 2008;
- Laqueur, Walter (July 1975). "The Origins of Guerrilla Doctrine". Journal of Contemporary History 10: 341–382. Society for Military History. ;
- Oman, Sir Charles (1908), A History of the Peninsular War: Volume III, September 1809 to December 1810, Greenhill Books (published 2004), ISBN 1-85367-617-9. Sir Charles William Chadwick Oman ( January 12 1860 &ndash June 23 1946) was a British military historian of the early
Further reading
- Esdaile, Charles J. Fighting Napoleon Yale University Press, 2004, ISBN 0300101120.
- Esdaile, Charles J. The Spanish Army in the Peninsular War Manchester University Press, 1988, ISBN 0719025389.
- Fletcher, Ian Peninsular War; Aspects of the Struggle for the Iberian Peninsula Spellmount Publishers, 2003, ISBN 1873376820.
- Fletcher, Ian (ed. ) The Campaigns of Wellington, (3 vols), Vol 1. The Peninsular War 1808–1811; Vol. 2. The Peninsular War 1812–1814, The Folio Society, 2007.
- Goya, Francisco The Disasters of War Dover Publications, 1967, ISBN 0486218724.
- Griffith, Paddy A History of the Peninsular War: Modern Studies of the War in Spain and Portugal, 1808-14 v. 9 Greenhill Books, 1999, ISBN 185367348X.
- Lovett, Gabriel H. Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain New York UP, 1965, ISBN 0814702678.
- Napier, William. General Sir William Francis Patrick Napier KCB ( December 7, 1785 - February 12, 1860) Irish soldier in The War in the Peninsula (6 vols), London: John Murray (Vol 1), and private (Vols 2-6), 1828-40.
- Oman, Charles. Sir Charles William Chadwick Oman ( January 12 1860 &ndash June 23 1946) was a British military historian of the early The History of the Peninsular War (7 vols), Oxford, 1903-30.
- Rathbone, Julian Wellington's War, Michael Joseph, 1984, ISBN 0718123964
- Suchet, Marshal Duke D'Albufera Memoirs of the War in Spain Pete Kautz, 2007, 2 volumes: ISBN 1858184770 & ISBN 1858184762.
- Urban, Mark. Rifles: Six years with Wellington's legendary sharpshooters Pub Faber & Faber, 2003. ISBN 0-571-21681-1
- Urban, Mark. The Man who Broke Napoleon's Codes. Faber and Faber Ltd, London 2001. ISBN 0-571-20513-5,
External links
- The Cruel War in Spain - Armies, Battles
- Bicentenario de la Batalla de Bailen
- Peninsular War
- List of British Peninsular War officer deaths
- Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and the Napoleonic Wars
- Royal Engineers Museum The Engineers and the Peninsular War (1808-14)
- Wellington's dispatches from the Peninsular War and Waterloo: 1808 - 1815
- The British Army in Portugal and Spain: Its Order-of-Battle
- Napoleonic Wars in Girona 1808-1814
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