Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Acid rain is Rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually Acidic It has harmful effects on plants aquatic animals and infastructure The Air Quality Index ( AQI) is a standardized indicator of the Air Quality in a given location Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. The haloalkanes (also known as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of Chemical compounds consisting of Alkanes such as Methane Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct Irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky Indoor Air Quality (IAQ deals with the content of interior air that could affect health and comfort of building occupants Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related observations a slow steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total amount of Ozone in Earth's Smog is a kind of Air pollution; the word "smog" is a Portmanteau of Smoke and Fog. Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Eutrophication is an increase in chemical Nutrients -- typically compounds containing Nitrogen or Phosphorus -- in an Ecosystem, and may occur For other uses of the term "hypoxia" see Hypoxia. Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments Marine pollution is the harmful effect caused by the entry into the ocean of chemicals particles, or Plastic debris. For the fictional character see Oil Slick (Transformers. An oil spill is the release of a Liquid Petroleum Hydrocarbon into Ship pollution is the pollution of air and Water by Shipping. Surface runoff is a term used to describe when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess Water, from Rain, Snowmelt, or other sources flows Thermal pollution is a Temperature change in natural bodies of water caused by human influence Distinguish from Wastwater (a lake in the Lake District in northwest England Waterborne diseases are caused by Pathogenic Microorganisms which are directly transmitted when contaminated Drinking water is consumed Water quality is the physical chemical and biological characteristics of Water in relationship to a set of standards Water stagnation occurs when Water stops flowing Stagnant water can be a major Environmental hazard. Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Radioactive contamination is the uncontrolled distribution of radioactive material in a given environment Actinides in the environment refer to the sources environmental behaviour and effects of Actinides in the environment. Environmental Radioactivity is the study of radioactive materials in the Human environment. Fission products are the atomic fragments left after a large nucleus fissions. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion Plutonium in the environment is an article which is part of the Actinides in the environment series Radiation poisoning, also called " radiation sickness " or a " creeping dose " is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to This is a subpage of Environmental radioactivity. Radium Radium in quack medicine See the story of Eben Byers for details of one very nasty case Uranium in the environment, this page is about the Science of Uranium in the environment and in animals (including humans Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excess or obtrusive Light created mainly by Humans Among other effects Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life Radio spectrum pollution is the straying of waves in the radio and Electromagnetic spectrums outside their allocations that cause problems for some activities Visual pollution is the term given to unattractive or unnatural (human-made visual elements of a vista a Landscape, or any other thing that a person might not want to For other similarly-named agreements see Montreal Convention (disambiguation. Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes, opened for signature on The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases in an effort The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP, is intended to protect the human environment against Air This is a list of environmental organizations. See also Environmental organization Intergovernmental organizations International organizations The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for environmental protection The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW is a worldwide system established by the World Meteorological Organization a United Nations agency to monitor trends in the Greenpeace, originally known as the Greenpeace Foundation, was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in 1972 The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS are standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor Air Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Technically an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the A wildfire, also known as a wildland fire, forest fire, brush fire, vegetation fire, grass fire, Peat fire, Grasslands (also called greenswards) are areas where the Vegetation is dominated by Grasses ( Poaceae) and other Herbaceous (non-woody Sea spray is a Spray of Water that forms when Ocean waves crash Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. A power station (also referred to as generating station, power plant or powerhouse) is an industrial facility for the generation of Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer. Heart disease is an Umbrella term for a variety for different diseases affecting the Heart. Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung.

Scale classification

Among the most common categorizations imposed on particulates are those with respect to size, referred to as fractions. As particles are often non-spherical (for example, Asbestos fibers), there are many definitions of particle size. Asbestos fibers are released from asbestos containing materials (ACMs Particle size is a Notion introduced for comparing dimensions of Solid particles ( flecks) Liquid particles ( droplets The most widely used definition is the aerodynamic diameter. Aerodynamic diameter is a physical property of a Particle in a Viscous Fluid such as Air. A particle with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometers moves in a gas like a sphere of unit density (1 gram per cubic centimeter) with a diameter of 10 micrometers. Aerodynamic diameter is a physical property of a Particle in a Viscous Fluid such as Air. A micrometer (mаɪˈkrɒmɪtər ( enPR: mī-krŏmʹĭ-tər sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge is a device used widely in Mechanical engineering A micrometer (mаɪˈkrɒmɪtər ( enPR: mī-krŏmʹĭ-tər sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge is a device used widely in Mechanical engineering PM diameters range from less than 10 nanometers to more than 100 micrometers. A nanometre ( American spelling: nanometer, symbol nm) ( Greek: νάνος nanos dwarf; μετρώ metrό count) is a A micrometer (mаɪˈkrɒmɪtər ( enPR: mī-krŏmʹĭ-tər sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge is a device used widely in Mechanical engineering These dimensions represent the continuum from a few molecules up to the size where particles can no longer be carried by a gas. In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by

The notation PM₁₀ is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less and PM_{2. 5} represents particles less than 2. 5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter. Aerodynamic diameter is a physical property of a Particle in a Viscous Fluid such as Air. ^[1].

But because no sampler is perfect in the sense that no particle larger than its cutoff diameter passes the inlet, all reference methods allow a high margin of error. In Theoretical physics, cutoff is the maximal or minimal value of Energy, Momentum, or Length, so that the objects with even larger or smaller These are also sometimes referred to with other equivalent numeric values. Everything below 100 nm, down to the size of individual molecules is classified as ultrafine particles (UFP or UP)^[2]. Ultrafine particles ( UFPs) are Nanoscale, less than 100 Nanometres Clusters of UFPs can be seen with the naked eye

Note that PM₁₀-PM_{2. 5} is the difference of PM₁₀ and PM_{2. 5}, so that it only includes the coarse fraction of PM₁₀.

These are the formal definitions. Depending on the context, alternative definitions may be applied. In some specialized settings, each fraction may exclude the fractions of lesser scale, so that PM₁₀ excludes particles in a smaller size range, e. g. PM_{2. 5}, usually reported separately in the same work ^[2]. Such a case is sometimes emphasized with the difference notation, e. g. PM₁₀-PM_{2. 5}. Other exceptions may be similarly specified. This is useful when not only the upper bound of a fraction is relevant to a discussion. The facts that some particle size ranges require greater filter strength and the smallest ones can outstrip the body's ability to keep them out of cells both serve to guide understanding of related public policy, environment, and health topics.

Sources

Aerosol pollution over Northern India and Bangladesh - Photo: NASA

There are both natural and human sources of atmospheric particulates. The biggest natural sources are dust, volcanoes, and forest fires. Dust is a general name for minute Solid particles with Diameters less than 500 micrometers. Sea spray is also a large source of particles though most of these fall back to the ocean close to where they were emitted. The biggest human sources of particles are combustion sources, mainly the burning of fuels in internal combustion engines in automobiles and power plants, and wind blown dust from construction sites and other land areas where the water or vegetation has been removed. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a A power station (also referred to as generating station, power plant or powerhouse) is an industrial facility for the generation of In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure Some of these particles are emitted directly to the atmosphere (primary emissions) and some are emitted as gases and form particles in the atmosphere (secondary emissions). Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of Pollutants that can be released into the environment

Composition

The composition of aerosol particles depends on their source. Wind-blown mineral dust [1] tends to be made of mineral oxides and other material blown from the Earth's crust; this aerosol is light-absorbing. Mineral dust is a term used to indicate atmospheric aerosols originated from thesuspension of Minerals constituting the Soil, being composed of various An oxide is a Chemical compound containing at least one Oxygen atom as well as at least one other element In Geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet or moon In Physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the process by which the Energy of a Photon is taken up by matter typically the electrons of an Sea salt [2] is considered the second-largest contributor in the global aerosol budget, and consists mainly of sodium chloride originated from sea spray; other constituents of atmospheric sea salt reflect the composition of sea water, and thus include magnesium, sulfate, calcium, potassium, etc. For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a Sea spray is a Spray of Water that forms when Ocean waves crash Seawater is Water from a Sea or Ocean. On average seawater in the world's oceans has a Salinity of about 3 Magnesium (mægˈniːziəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Mg, Atomic number 12 Atomic weight 24 Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 In addition, sea spray aerosols may contain organic compounds, which influence their chemistry. Sea salt does not absorb. In Physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the process by which the Energy of a Photon is taken up by matter typically the electrons of an

Secondary particles derive from the oxidation of primary gases such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides into sulfuric acid (liquid) and nitric acid (gaseous). Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state The term nitrogen oxide typically refers to any Binary compound of Oxygen and Nitrogen, or to a mixture of such compounds Nitric Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and The precursors for these aerosols—i. e. the gases from which they originate—may have an anthropogenic origin (from fossil fuel combustion) and a natural biogenic origin. Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of A biogenic substance is a substance produced by Life processes In the presence of ammonia, secondary aerosols often take the form of ammonium salts; i. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. e. ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate (both can be dry or in aqueous solution); in the absence of ammonia, secondary compounds take an acidic form as sulfuric acid (liquid aerosol droplets) and nitric acid (atmospheric gas). Ammonium sulfate, (NH42SO4 is an inorganic chemical compound commonly used as a fertilizer The Chemical compound ammonium nitrate, the Nitrate of Ammonia with the chemical formula N[[Hydrogen H]]4 N[[Oxygen O]]3 In Chemistry, a solution is a Homogeneous Mixture composed of two or more substances In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are Secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosols are strong light-scatterers. Scattering is a general physical process whereby some forms of Radiation, such as Light, Sound or moving particles for example are forced to deviate from [3] This is mainly because the presence of sulfate and nitrate causes the aerosols to increase to a size that scatters light effectively.

Organic matter (OM) can be either primary or secondary, the latter part deriving from the oxidation of VOCs; organic material in the atmosphere may either be biogenic or anthropogenic. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. This article describes a highly specialized aspect of its subject in the "Terminology and legal definitions" section Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Organic matter influences the atmospheric radiation field by both scattering and absorption. Electromagnetic radiation takes the form of self-propagating Waves in a Vacuum or in Matter. Scattering is a general physical process whereby some forms of Radiation, such as Light, Sound or moving particles for example are forced to deviate from In Physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the process by which the Energy of a Photon is taken up by matter typically the electrons of an Another important aerosol type is constitude of elemental carbon (EC, also known as black carbon, BC): this aerosol type includes strongly light-absorbing material and is thought to yield large positive radiative forcing. Soot (ˈsʊt is a general term that refers to the black impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon Black carbon or BC is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels biofuel and biomass and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot In Climate science radiative forcing is (loosely defined as the change in net Irradiance at the Tropopause. Organic matter and elemental carbon together constitute the carbonaceous fraction of aerosols. Carbonaceous is the defining attribute of a substance rich in Carbon. ii[4]

The chemical composition of the aerosol directly affects how it interacts with solar radiation. The chemical constituents within the aerosol change the overall refractive index. The refractive index (or index of Refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves is reduced inside the medium The refractive index will determine how much light is scattered and absorbed.

Removal processes

In general, the smaller and lighter a particle is, the longer it will stay in the air. Larger particles (greater than 10 micrometers in diameter) tend to settle to the ground by gravity in a matter of hours whereas the smallest particles (less than 1 micrometer) can stay in the atmosphere for weeks and are mostly removed by precipitation. In Meteorology, precipitation (also known as one class of hydrometeors, which are atmospheric water phenomena is any product of the condensation of atmospheric

Radiative forcing from aerosols

Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions

Aerosols, natural and anthropogenic, can affect the climate by changing the way radiation is transmitted through the atmosphere. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Electromagnetic radiation takes the form of self-propagating Waves in a Vacuum or in Matter. Direct observations of the effects of aerosols are quite limited so any attempt to estimate their global effect necessarily involves the use of computer models. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, says: While the radiative forcing due to greenhouse gases may be determined to a reasonably high degree of accuracy. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared . . the uncertainties relating to aerosol radiative forcings remain large, and rely to a large extent on the estimates from global modelling studies that are difficult to verify at the present time [5].

A graphic showing the contributions (at 2000, relative to pre-industrial) and uncertainties of various forcings is available here.

Sulfate aerosol

Sulfate aerosol has two main effects, direct and indirect. The direct effect, via albedo, is to cool the planet: the IPCC's best estimate of the radiative forcing is -0. The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely reflects light from the sun In Climate science radiative forcing is (loosely defined as the change in net Irradiance at the Tropopause. 4 watts per square meter with a range of -0. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. 2 to -0. 8 W/m² [6] but there are substantial uncertainties. The effect varies strongly geographically, with most cooling believed to be at and downwind of major industrial centres. Modern climate models attempting to deal with the attribution of recent climate change need to include sulfate forcing, which appears to account (at least partly) for the slight drop in global temperature in the middle of the 20th century. This article is about the theories and mathematics of climate modeling See also Global warming, Climate change, Climate change denial Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain The indirect effect (via the aerosol acting as cloud condensation nuclei, CCN, and thereby modifying the cloud properties -albedo and lifetime-) is more uncertain but is believed to be a cooling. Cloud condensation nuclei or CCN s (also known as cloud seeds) are small particles (typically 0

Black carbon

Black carbon (BC), or carbon black, or elemental carbon (EC), often called soot, is composed of pure carbon clusters, skeleton balls and buckyballs, and is one of the most important absorbing aerosol species in the atmosphere. Black carbon or BC is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels biofuel and biomass and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot "C60" and "C-60" redirect here For other uses see C60 (disambiguation. It should be distinguished from organic carbon (OC): clustered or aggregated organic molecules on their own or permeating an EC buckyball. BC from fossil fuels is estimated by the IPCC in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, TAR, to contribute a global mean radiative forcing of +0. 2 W/m² (was +0. 1 W/m² in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC, SAR), with a range +0. 1 to +0. 4 W/m².

All aerosols both absorb and scatter solar and terrestrial radiation. In Physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the process by which the Energy of a Photon is taken up by matter typically the electrons of an Scattering is a general physical process whereby some forms of Radiation, such as Light, Sound or moving particles for example are forced to deviate from Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy If a substance absorbs a significant amount of radiation, as well as scattering, it is called absorbing. This is quantified in the Single Scattering Albedo (SSA), the ratio of scattering alone to scattering plus absorption (extinction) of radiation by a particle. The SSA tends to unity if scattering dominates, with relatively little absorption, and decreases as absorption increases, becoming zero for infinite absorption. For example, sea-salt aerosol has an SSA of 1, as a sea-salt particle only scatters, whereas soot has an SSA of 0. 23, showing that it is a major atmospheric aerosol absorber.

Health effects

Air pollution measurement station in Emden, Germany

The effects of inhaling particulate matter has been widely studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. Emden is a City and Seaport in the northwest of Germany, on River Ems. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Asthma is a chronic Condition involving the Respiratory system in which the airways occasionally constrict become inflamed, and are Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung. Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific The size of the particle is a main determinant of where in the respiratory tract the particle will come to rest when inhaled. Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat and do not cause problems, but particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometres, referred to as PM₁₀, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive The 10 micrometer size does not represent a strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles, but has been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne particulate matter by most regulatory agencies. Similarly, particles smaller than 2. 5 micrometres, PM_{2. 5}, tend to penetrate into the gas-exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (< 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. In particular, a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association indicates that PM_{2. 5} leads to high plaque deposits in arteries, causing vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis — a hardening of the arteries that reduces elasticity, which can lead to heart attacks and other cardiovascular problems ^[3]. Researchers suggest that even short-term exposure at elevated concentrations could significantly contribute to heart disease.

Researchers at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health have conducted the largest nationwide study on the acute health effects of coarse particle pollution. Coarse particles are airborne pollutants that fall between 2. 5 and 10 microns in diameter. ^[4] The study, published in the May 14, 2008, edition of JAMA, found evidence of an association with hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases but no evidence of an association with the number of hospital admissions for respiratory diseases. After taking into account fine particle levels, the association with coarse particles remained but was no longer statistically significant.

The smallest particles, less than 100 nanometers (nanoparticles), may be even more damaging to the cardiovascular system. In Nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties ^[5] There is evidence that particles smaller than 100 nanometres can pass through cell membranes and migrate into other organs, including the brain. It has been suggested that particulate matter can cause similar brain damage as that found in Alzheimer patients. Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia. Particles emitted from modern diesel engines (commonly referred to as Diesel Particulate Matter, or DPM) are typically in the size range of 100 nanometres (0. Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum Diesel particulate matter (DPM sometimes also called diesel exhaust particles (DEP is the particulate component of Diesel exhaust from older diesel cars 1 micrometres). In addition, these soot particles also carry carcinogenic components like benzopyrenes adsorbed on their surface. Soot (ˈsʊt is a general term that refers to the black impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation Benzopyrene, C20H12 is a five-ring Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon that is Mutagenic and highly Carcinogenic It is a crystalline It is becoming increasingly clear that the legislative limits for engines, which are in terms of emitted mass, are not a proper measure of the health hazard. One particle of 10 µm diameter has approximately the same mass as 1 million particles of 100 nm diameter, but it is clearly much less hazardous, as it probably never enters the human body - and if it does, it is quickly removed. Proposals for new regulations exist in some countries, with suggestions to limit the particle surface area or the particle number.

The large number of deaths and other health problems associated with particulate pollution was first demonstrated in the early 1970s ^[6] and has been reproduced many times since. PM pollution is estimated to cause 22,000-52,000 deaths per year in the United States (from 2000) ^[7] and 200,000 deaths per year in Europe.

Regulation

Due to the health effects of particulate matter, maximum standards have been set by various governments. Many urban areas in the U. S. and Europe still frequently violate the particulate standards, though urban air on these continents has become cleaner, on average, with respect to particulates over the last quarter of the 20th century.

United States

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets standards for PM₁₀ and PM_{2. 5} concentrations in urban air. (See National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS are standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor Air ) EPA regulates primary particulate emissions and precursors to secondary emissions (NOx, sulfur, and ammonia). The term nitrogen oxide typically refers to any Binary compound of Oxygen and Nitrogen, or to a mixture of such compounds Nitric Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor

EU legislation

In directives 1999/30/EC and 96/62/EC, the European Commission has set limits for PM₁₀ in the air:

¹ indicative value.

Affected areas

The most concentrated particulate matter pollution tends to be in densely populated metropolitan areas in developing countries. Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Taiyuan ( lit "Great Plains" is a Prefecture-level city and the capital of Shanxi province China. Chongqing ( Postal map spelling: Chungking; Wade-Giles: Ch'ung-ch'ing) is the largest and most populous of the People's Republic of China Kanpur ( Hindi: कानपुर Urdu: کان پور spelled as Cawnpore before 1948 is one of the most populous cities in the north India Lucknow is also a mansion in New Hampshire Lucknow ( लखनऊ لکھنؤ Lakhnaū) is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia. Shenyang ( Ch: 沈阳 pinyin Shěnyáng, or Mukden ( in Manchu) is a Sub-provincial city and capital of Liaoning The primary cause is the burning of fossil fuels by transportation and industrial sources.

U. S. counties violating national PM_{2. 5} standards, roughly correlated with population density.

U. S. counties violating national PM₁₀ standards.

Aerosol science

The field of aerosol science and technology has grown in response to the need to understand and control natural and manmade aerosols. Aerosols are characterized by a Particle size distribution function (PSD

References

Further reading

• Article at earthobservatory.nasa.gov describing the possible influence of aerosols on the climate
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the principal international scientific body on climate change) chapter on atmospheric aerosols and their radiative effects
• [7] InsideEPA. com, Study Links Air Toxics To Heart Disease In Mice Amid EPA Controversy
• Preining, Othmar and E. James Davis (eds. ), "History of Aerosol Science," Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ISBN 3700129157 (pbk. )
• G Invernizzi et al. , Particulate matter from tobacco versus diesel car exhaust: an educational perspective. Tobacco Control 13, S.219-221 (2004)
• Sheldon K. Friedlander, "Smoke, Dust and Haze".
• JEFF CHARLTON Pandemic planning: a review of respirator and mask protection levels.
• Hinds, William C. , Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles, Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0471194107

See also

• Adequately wet
• Aerosol science
• Air pollution
• Biological warfare
• Clouds
• Criteria air contaminants
• Deposition
• Diesel particulate matter
• Dust
• Fog
• Global dimming
• Global warming
• Global Atmosphere Watch
• Haze
• Medical geology
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (USA)
• Particulate mask
• "Pea soup" fog
• Pollution
• Radiological weapon
• Respirator
• Scrubber

External links

• National Pollutant Inventory - Particulate matter fact sheet
• WHO-Europe reports: Health Aspects of Air Pollution (2003) (PDF) and "Answer to follow-up questions from CAFE (2004) (PDF)
• American Association for Aerosol Research
• Particulate Air Pollution
• Aerosol Society - The Development of Aerosol Science in the United Kingdom
• Watch and read 'Dirty Little Secrets', 2006 Australian science documentary on health effects of fine particle pollution from vehicle exhausts
• Aerosol Science and Technology
• Canada-Wide Standards
• Little Green Data Book 2007, World Bank. The phrase " adequately wet " is an environmental term referring to handling of Asbestos containing work such as demolition of old houses containing asbestos tiles or Aerosols are characterized by a Particle size distribution function (PSD Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium A cloud is a visible mass of droplets or frozen crystals floating in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth or another Planetary body Criteria air contaminants (CAC are a group of air pollutants that cause Smog, Acid rain and other health hazards In aerosol physics Deposition is the process by which aerosol particles collect or deposit themselves on solid surfaces decreasing the concentration of the particles in the Diesel particulate matter (DPM sometimes also called diesel exhaust particles (DEP is the particulate component of Diesel exhaust from older diesel cars Dust is a general name for minute Solid particles with Diameters less than 500 micrometers. Fog is a cloud that is in contact with the ground Stratus clouds are usually the only clouds that touch the ground Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct Irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW is a worldwide system established by the World Meteorological Organization a United Nations agency to monitor trends in the Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky Medical geology is an emerging interdisciplinary scientific field consisting of those aspects of Geology as they affect human animal and plant Health. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS are standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor Air Pea soup is Soup made typically from dried Peas It is with variations a part of the cuisine of many cultures Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in A radiological weapon (or radiological dispersion device, RDD) is any weapon that is designed to spread Radioactive material with the intent to kill and A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling harmful Dusts fumes vapors and/or Gases Respirators come in a wide range of types and sizes This article is about the pollution control device for other uses see Scrubber (disambiguation. Lists C02 and PM statistics by country.
• Air Pollution in World Cities (PM10 Concentrations)
• European Environment Agency