Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species in which one, the parasite, benefits from a prolonged, close association with the other, the host, which is harmed. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. In Biology, a host is an organism that harbors a Virus or Parasite, or a mutual or Commensal Symbiont, typically providing nourishment In general, parasites are much smaller than their hosts, show a high degree of specialization for their mode of life and reproduce more quickly and in greater numbers than their hosts. A generalist species is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources (for example a Heterotroph Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Classic examples of parasitism include the interactions between vertebrate hosts and such diverse animals as the tapeworms, flukes, Plasmodium species and fleas. Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes Tapeworm is also an older name for a type of Computer virus. Cestoda is a class of Parasitic Flatworms commonly called The Trematoda is a class within the phylum Platyhelminthes that contains two groups of parasitic Worms commonly referred to as flukes A plasmodium is also the macroscopic form of the Protist known as a Slime mould. Flea is the Common name for any of the small wingless Insects of the order Siphonaptera (some authorities use the name Aphaniptera
The harm and benefit in parasitic interactions concern the biological fitness of the organisms involved. Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory. Parasites reduce host fitness in many ways, ranging from general or specialized pathology (such as castration), impairment of secondary sex characteristics, to the modification of host behaviour. Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and Secondary sex characteristics are traits that distinguish the two Sexes of a species but that are not directly part of the Reproductive system. Parasites increase their fitness by exploiting hosts for food, habitat and dispersal.
Although the concept of parasitism applies unambiguously to many cases in nature, it is best considered part of a continuum of types of interactions between species, rather than an exclusive category. Varroa destructor is an external parasitic Mite that attacks Honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera. Biological interactions result from the fact that Organisms in an Ecosystem interact with each other in the natural world no organism is an autonomous entity isolated In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Particular interactions between species may satisfy some but not all parts of the definition. In many cases, it is difficult to demonstrate the host is harmed. In others, there may be no apparent specialization on the part of the parasite, or the interaction between the organisms may be short-lived. For example, because of the episodic nature of its feeding habits, the mosquito is not considered parasitic. Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs In medicine, only eukaryotic organisms are considered parasites, to the exclusion of bacteria and viruses. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Some branches of biology, however, do regard members of these groups to be parasitic. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles
Contents |
Types of parasitism
Parasites are classified based on a variety of aspects of their interactions with their hosts and on their life cycles.
Those that live inside the host are called endoparasites (e. g. , hookworms) and those that live on its surface are called ectoparasites (e. The hookworm is a parasitic Nematode worm that lives in the Small intestine of its host which may be a Mammal such as a Dog, g. , some mites). Mites, along with Ticks belong to the subclass Acarina (also known as Acari and the class Arachnida Mites are among the most diverse and successful
An epiparasite is one that feeds on another parasite. This relationship is also sometimes referred to as "hyperparasitism".
Parasitoids are organisms that cause the host to die as a result of parasitism. A parasitoid is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life history attached to or within a single host Organism which it ultimately kills Thus, the interaction between the parasitoid and the host is fundamentally different than true parasites and their host, and shares some characteristics with predation
Social parasites take advantage of interactions between members of social organisms such as ants or termites. Ants are social Insects of the family Formicidae and along with the related families of Wasps and Bees belong to the order The termites are a group of Social Insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera (but see also taxonomy In kleptoparasitism, parasites appropriate food gathered by the host. Kleptoparasitism or cleptoparasitism (literally Parasitism by Theft) is a form of Feeding where one animal takes Prey from another An example is the brood parasitism practiced by many species of cuckoo. Brood parasites are organisms that use the strategy of brood-parasitism, a kind of Kleptoparasitism found among Birds Fish or Insects The cuckoos are a family Cuculidae, of Near passerine Birds The order Cuculiformes, in addition to the cuckoos also includes the Many cuckoos use other bird species as "babysitters", depositing their eggs in the nest of the host species, which raise the cuckoo young as one of their own. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank.
Parasitism can take the form of isolated cheating or exploitation among more generalized mutualistic interactions. Cheating, also known as exploitation, between organisms is a form of Parasitism or specialized Predation in which an organism engages in what appears to Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased For example, broad classes of plants and fungi exchange carbon and nutrients in common mutualistic mycorrhizal relationships; however, a few plants species (known as myco-heterotrophs) "cheat" by taking carbon from a fungus rather than donating it. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ A mycorrhiza (Greek for fungus roots coined by Frank 1885 typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic (occasionally Myco-heterotrophy is a Symbiotic relationship between certain kinds of Plants and Fungi, in which the plant gets all or part of its food from
For parasitic conjoined twins, see Parasitic twin. A parasitic twin (also known as an asymmetrical or unequal conjoined twin) is the result of the processes that produce Vanishing twins and Conjoined
Evolutionary aspects
Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely common mode of life that has arisen independently many times in the course of evolution. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles,[1] and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite taxa. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to [2]
Parasites evolve in response to defense mechanisms of their hosts. Examples of host defenses include the toxins produced by plants to deter parasitic fungi and bacteria, the complex vertebrate immune system, which can target parasites through contact with bodily fluids, and behavioural defenses. A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor An example of the latter is the avoidance by sheep of open pastures during spring, when roundworm eggs accumulated over the previous year hatch en masse. The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common As a result of these and other host defenses, some parasites evolve adaptations that are specific to a particular host taxon and specialize to the point where they infect only a single species. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to Such narrow host specificity can be costly over evolutionary time, however, if the host species becomes extinct. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. Thus, many parasites are capable of infecting a variety of host species that are more or less closely related, with varying success.
Host defenses also evolve in response to attacks by parasites. Theoretically, parasites may have an advantage in this evolutionary arms race because of their more rapid generation time. In Evolutionary biology, an evolutionary arms race is an Evolutionary struggle between competing sets of co-evolving Genes that develop adaptations The doubling time is the period of time required for a quantity to double in size or value Hosts reproduce less quickly than parasites, and therefore have fewer chances to adapt than their parasites do over a given span of time. An adaptation is a characteristic of an Organism that has been favored by Natural selection and
In some cases, a parasite species may coevolve with its host taxa. In a broad sense biological co-evolution is "the change of a biological object triggered by the change of a related object" A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to In theory, long-term coevolution should lead to a relatively stable relationship tending to commensalism or mutualism, in that it is in the evolutionary interest of the parasite that its host thrives. In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased For example, although animals infected with parasitic worms are often clearly harmed, and therefore parasitized, such infections may also reduce the prevalence and effects of autoimmune disorders in animal hosts, including humans. See also Parasitic worm (disambiguation Parasitic worms or helminths are a division of eukaroytic Parasites that unlike external parasites such Autoimmunity is the failure of an organism to recognize its own constituent parts as self, which results in an immune response against its own cells and tissues [3]
The presumption of a shared evolutionary history between parasites and hosts can sometimes elucidate how host taxa are related. For instance, there has been dispute about whether flamingos are more closely related to the storks and their allies or to ducks, geese and their relatives. Flamingos or flamingoes ( are gregarious Wading birds in the Genus Phoenicopterus and family Traditionally the order Ciconiiformes has included a variety of large long-legged wading birds with large bills Storks Herons Egrets The order Anseriformes contains about 150 living Species of Birds in three extant families the Anhimidae (the screamers Anseranatidae The fact that flamingos share parasites with ducks and geese is evidence these groups may be more closely related to each other than either is to storks.
Parasitism is part of one explanation for the evolution of secondary sex characteristics seen in breeding males throughout the animal world, such as the plumage of male peacocks and manes of male lions. Secondary sex characteristics are traits that distinguish the two Sexes of a species but that are not directly part of the Reproductive system. The term peafowl refers to Gallinaceous Birds classified within the genera Rheinardia Argusianus Afropavoand Pavo The lion ( Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four Big cats in the Genus Panthera. According to this theory, female hosts select males for breeding based on such characteristics because they indicate resistance to parasites and other disease. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly
Ecology
Because they are small and often hidden from view, parasites are often ignored in ecology. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of However, parasites are ubiquitous and play important roles in ecosystems and, considered in their own right, pose unique problems in ecology. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( More recently, therefore, parasite ecology has matured as a discipline and begun to integrate with ecology in the broader sense.
Quantitative ecology
When considering the distribution of a single parasite species, one finds that parasite individuals exhibit an aggregated distribution among host individuals. This means that most hosts harbour a few or no parasites, while a few hosts carry the vast majority of parasite individuals. This poses considerable problems for students of parasite ecology: the use of parametric statistics should be avoided. Parametric statistics are statistics where the population is assumed to fit any parametrized distributions (most typically the Normal distribution) Log-transformation of data before the application of parametric test, or the use of non-parametric statistics is recommended by several authors; however, these give rise to further problems. Non-parametric statistics is a branch of Statistics concerned with non-parametric Statistical models and non-parametric inference, including non-parametric Therefore, modern day quantitative parasitology is based on more advanced biostatistical methods. Counting parasites Quantifying parasites in a sample of hosts or comparing measures of infection across two or more samples can be challenging
Diversity ecology
Hosts represent discrete habitat patches that can be occupied by parasites. A hierarchical set of terminology has come into use to describe parasite assemblages at different host scales.
An infrapopulation is all the parasites of one species in a single individual host
A metapopulation is all the parasites of one species in a host population
An infracommunity is all the parasites of all species in a single individual host
A component community is all the parasites of all species in a host population
A compound community is all the parasites of all species in all host species in an ecosystem.
The diversity ecology of parasites differs markedly from that of free-living organisms. That is, the determinants of species richness and relative abundance animals. For free-living organisms, diversity ecology features many strong conceptual frameworks including Macarthur and Wilson's theory of island biogeography, Diamond's assembly rules and, more recently, null models such as Hubbell's neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Island biogeography is a field within Biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the Species richness of natural communities Community assembly rules are a set of controversial rules first proposed by Jared Diamond The rules were developed after more than a decade of research into the avian assemblages on islands Frameworks are not so well-developed for parasites and in many ways they do not fit the free-living models. For example, island biogeography is predicated on fixed spatial relationships between habitat patches ("sinks"), usually with reference to a mainland ("source"). Parasites inhabit hosts, which represent mobile habitat patches with dynamic spatial relationships. There is no true "mainland" other than the sum of hosts (host population); in this way, parasite component communities in host populations are metacommunities.
Nonetheless, different types of parasite assemblages have been recognised in host individuals and populations, and many of the patterns observed for free-living organisms are also pervasive among parasite assemblages. The most prominent of these is the interactive-isolationist continuum. This proposes that parasite assemblages occur along a cline from interactive communities, where niches are saturated and interspecific competition is high, to isolationist communities, where there are many vacant niches and interspecific interaction is not as important as stochastic factors in providing structure to the community. Whether this is so, or whether community patterns simply reflect the sum of underlying species distributions (no real "structure" to the community), has not yet been established.
Transmission
Parasites inhabit living organisms, and as a result face problems that free-living organisms do not. Hosts, the only habitats in which parasites can survive, actively try to avoid, repel and destroy parasites. Parasites employ numerous strategies for getting from one host to another, a process sometimes referred to as parasite transmission, or the colonization of new hosts.
Many endoparasites infect their host by penetrating its external surface, while others must be ingested by the host. Once inside the host, adult endoparasites need to shed offspring into the external environment in order to infect other hosts. Many adult endoparasites reside in the host’s gastrointestinal tract, where offspring can be shed along with host excreta. Excretion is the process of eliminating waste products of Metabolism and other non-useful materials Adult stages of tapeworms, thorny-headed worms and most flukes use this method. Tapeworm is also an older name for a type of Computer virus. Cestoda is a class of Parasitic Flatworms commonly called The Acanthocephala ( Greek ακανθος akanthos, thorn + κεφαλη kephale, head is a phylum of Parasitic worms known as The Trematoda is a class within the phylum Platyhelminthes that contains two groups of parasitic Worms commonly referred to as flukes
Among protozoan endoparasites, such as the malarial parasites and trypanosomes, infective stages in the host’s blood are transported to new hosts by biting-insects, or vectors. Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Trypanosomes are a group of Kinetoplastid protozoa distinguished by having only a single Flagellum. Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from
Larval stages of endoparasites often infect sites in the host other than the blood or gastrointestinal tract. A larva ( Latin; plural larvae) is a juvenile form of Animal with indirect development, undergoing Metamorphosis (for example In many such cases, larval endoparasites require their host to be consumed by the next host in the parasite’s life cycle in order to survive and reproduce. Parasite life cycles can take a variety of forms all involving the exploitation of one or more hosts. Alternatively, larval endoparasites may shed free-living transmission stages that migrate through the host’s tissue into the external environment, where they actively search for or await ingestion by other hosts. The foregoing strategies are used, variously, by larval stages of tapeworms, thorny-headed worms, flukes and parasitic roundworms. Tapeworm is also an older name for a type of Computer virus. Cestoda is a class of Parasitic Flatworms commonly called The Acanthocephala ( Greek ακανθος akanthos, thorn + κεφαλη kephale, head is a phylum of Parasitic worms known as The Trematoda is a class within the phylum Platyhelminthes that contains two groups of parasitic Worms commonly referred to as flukes The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common
Many ectoparasites, such as monogenean worms, rely on direct contact between hosts to colonize new hosts, but other methods are also used. Monogenea (adj monogenean are a group of largely ectoparasitic members of the flatworm phylum Platyhelminthes, class Monogenea. Ectoparasitic arthropods may rely on host-host contact (e. Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " g. many lice) shed eggs that survive off the host (e. Sucking lice ( Anoplura) have around 500 Species and represent the smaller of the two traditional suborders of Lice. g. fleas) and/or wait in the external environment for an encounter with a host (e. Flea is the Common name for any of the small wingless Insects of the order Siphonaptera (some authorities use the name Aphaniptera g. ticks). Tick is the common name for the small Arachnids in Superfamily Ixodoidea that along with other Mites constitute the Acarina. Some aquatic leeches locate hosts by sensing movement and only attach when certain temperature and chemical cues are present. Leeches are Annelids comprising the Subclass Hirudinea. There are freshwater terrestrial and marine leeches
Some parasites modify host behaviour to make transmission to other hosts more likely. For example, in California salt marshes, the fluke Euhaplorchis californiensis reduces the ability of its killifish host to avoid predators. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Euhaplorchis californiensis is a trophically transmitted parasite (TTP that lives in the salt-water marshes of Southern California A killifish is any of various tiny Oviparous (egg-laying cyprinodontiform fish (including families Aplocheilidae, Cyprinodontidae, [4] This parasite matures in egrets, which are more likely to feed on infected killifish than on uninfected fish. This is an article about a type of bird For the EGRET satellite mission see Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope. Another example is the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite that matures in cats but can be carried by many other mammals. Toxoplasma gondii is a species of parasitic Protozoa in the Genus Toxoplasma. WikipediaManual of Style (spelling, articles should conform to one overall spelling style of English typically the one most linked to the article topic (if it is geographic Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Uninfected rats avoid cat odours, but rats infected with T. gondii are drawn to this scent, a change which may increase transmission to feline hosts. [5]
Roles in ecosystems
Modifying the behaviour of infected hosts to make transmission to other hosts more likely is one way parasites can affect the structure of ecosystems. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( For example, in the case of Euhaplorchis californiensis discussed above, it is plausible that the abundance of local predator and prey species would be different if this parasite were absent from the system. Euhaplorchis californiensis is a trophically transmitted parasite (TTP that lives in the salt-water marshes of Southern California
Although parasites are often omitted in depictions of food webs, they usually occupy the top position. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. Parasites can function like keystone species, reducing the dominance of superior competitors and allowing competing species to co-exist. A keystone species is a Species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its abundance
Many parasites require multiple hosts of different species to complete their life cycles and rely on predator-prey or other stable ecological interactions to get from one host to another. In this sense, the parasites in an ecosystem reflect the “health” of that system.
Disease
Parasitic diseases account for a large proportion of human morbidity and mortality, and doubtlessly contribute significantly to morbidity and mortality among all animal populations as well. In this sense, parasitic disease is an important ecological force shaping the biosphere. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems.
Some major parasitic diseases of humans include malaria, sleeping sickness, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, limerence, ascariasis, enterobiasis, entamoebiasis, elephantiasis, river blindness, giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis, as well as minor afflictions like lice, mites, chiggers, bot flies, bed bugs, ticks, eye worms, lung worm, and guinea worm. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Sleeping sickness or human African trypanosomiasis is a Parasitic Disease of people and animals caused by Protozoa of species A genus of Trematodes Schistosoma spp commonly known as blood-flukes and bilharzia, cause the most significant infection of humans by Leishmaniasis is a Disease caused by Protozoan Parasites that belong to the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite of certain Limerence, as posited by psychologist Dorothy Tennov, is an involuntary Cognitive and emotional state in which a person feels an intense romantic Ascaris is a genus of parasitic Nematode worms One species A suum, typically infects Pigs, while another The pinworm (Genus Enterobius) also known as threadworm is a Parasitic Roundworm of the phylum Nematoda. Entamoeba is a Genus of Amoebozoa found as internal parasites or commensals of animals Elephantiasis (/ˌɛləfənˈtaɪəsɪs -fæn-/ -fan- is a disease that is characterized by the thickening of the skin and underlying tissues especially in the legs and genitals Onchocerciasis ( or /ˈɒnkoʊsɝːˈkaɪəsɨs/ also known as river blindness, is the world's second leading infectious cause of Blindness. Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a Flagellated Protozoan Cryptosporidium is a Protozoan that can cause gastro-intestinal illness with Diarrhea in humans Lice (singular louse) ( order Phthiraptera) are an order of over 3000 Species of wingless Insects three of which are classified Mites, along with Ticks belong to the subclass Acarina (also known as Acari and the class Arachnida Mites are among the most diverse and successful Oestridae (also called botfly or "bumfly" bot fly) is a family of Oestroidea. A bedbug (or bed bug) is a small nocturnal Insect of the family Cimicidae that lives by Hematophagy, or by feeding on the Blood Tick is the common name for the small Arachnids in Superfamily Ixodoidea that along with other Mites constitute the Acarina. Loa loa filaria is a microscopic Worm which causes the disease Loa loa filariasis (or loaisis in humans Paragonimus is an important Genus of Flatworms or platyhelminths that includes Paragonimus westermani, an infectious Lung fluke Dracunculiasis, more commonly known as Guinea worm disease ( GWD) or Medina Worm, is a parasitic Infection caused by the Humans are also subject to a myriad zoonotic diseases including Diphyllobothrium, hydatid disease, trichinellosis, Taenia infections, and anisakiasis. Diphyllobothrium Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis, is a Parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked Pork and Wild game Anisakis is a Genus of Parasitic Nematodes which have a life cycle involving Fish and Marine mammals They are infective
See also
- List of parasitic organisms
- Intestinal parasite
- Macroparasite
- Plasmodium
- Myco-heterotrophy
- Parasitic plant
- Parasitic wasp
- Pinworm
- Superparasitism
- Teratology
- Toxoplasmosis
- The Extended Phenotype
- Symbiosis
Further reading
- Zimmer, Carl 2001. This is an incomplete list of Organisms that are true Parasites upon other organisms Intestinal parasites are Parasites that populate the Gastro-intestinal tract. Macroparasites are parasites that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye in contrast to Microparasites They grow in the host but multiply by producing infective stages A plasmodium is also the macroscopic form of the Protist known as a Slime mould. Myco-heterotrophy is a Symbiotic relationship between certain kinds of Plants and Fungi, in which the plant gets all or part of its food from A parasitic plant is one that derives some or all of its sustenance from another plant The pinworm (Genus Enterobius) also known as threadworm is a Parasitic Roundworm of the phylum Nematoda. Superparasitism is a form of Parasitism in which the host (typically an Insect Larva such as a Caterpillar) is attacked more than once by its Teratology stems from the Greek ( Genitive) meaning monster, or marvel and, meaning word, speech. Toxoplasmosis is a Parasitic disease caused by the Protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. The Extended Phenotype (subtitled "The Gene as the Unit of Selection" and later "The Long Reach of the Gene" is a 1982 book by Richard This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Carl Zimmer (born 1966 is a popular science writer and Blogger especially regarding the study of Evolution and Parasites He has written several books and Parasite Rex. Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-0011-X
- Combes, Claude 2005. The Art of Being a Parasite. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN-10: 0226114384
- Desowitz, Robert 1998. Who Gave Pinta to the Santa Maria? Harvest Books. ISBN-10: 0156005859
External links
- Toxoplasmosis
- Parasitology Parasites Zoonoses - (Polish/English) over 50 movies (Filmoteka) and over 250 photos (Fotogaleria/Photogallery) with human and animal parasites.
- Aberystwyth University: Parasitology – class outline with links to full text articles on parasitism and parasitology.
- KSU: Parasitology Research - parasitology articles and links.
- Medical Parasitology – online textbook.
- Division of Parasitic Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- VCU Virtual Parasite Project - Virtual Parasite Project at Virginia Commonwealth University's Center for the Study of Biological Complexity
References
- ^ Price, P. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated W. 1980. Evolutionary Biology of Parasites. Princeton University Press, Princeton
- ^ Price, P. W. 1980. Evolutionary Biology of Parasites. Princeton University Press, Princeton
- ^ Rook, G. A. W. (2007). "The hygiene hypothesis and the increasing prevalence of chronic inflammatory disorders". Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 101: 1072-4. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Lafferty, K. D. and A. K. Morris. 1996. Altered behavior of parasitized killifish increases susceptibility to predation by bird final hosts. Ecology 77:1390-1397
- ^ Berdoy M, Webster JP, Macdonald DW (2000). "Fatal attraction in rats infected with Toxoplasma gondii". Proc. Biol. Sci. 267 (1452): 1591-4. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 11007336.
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic