Panspermia (Gk. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly πάς/πάν (pas/pan, all) σπέρμα (sperma, seed)) is the hypothesis that "seeds" of life exist already all over the Universe, that life on Earth may have originated through these "seeds", and that they may deliver or have delivered life to other habitable bodies. A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy

Exogenesis (Gk. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly "outside origin") is a more limited hypothesis that proposes life on Earth was transferred from elsewhere in the Universe but makes no prediction about how widespread it is. Because the term "panspermia" is more well-known, it tends to be used in reference to what would properly be called exogenesis.

The hypothesis is notable as a topic in science-fiction and quasi-religious circles such as Raëlism. Raëlism or Raëlian Church consists of the practitioners of a UFO religion founded by a former French sports-car journalist and test driver named Claude

Hypothesis

The first known mention of the idea was in the writings of the 5th century BC Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Anaxagoras ( Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας c 500 BC &ndash 428 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher famous for introducing the Cosmological The panspermia hypothesis was dormant until 1743 when it appeared posthumously in the writings of Benoît de Maillet, who suggested that germs from space had fallen into the oceans and grown into fish and later amphibians, reptiles and then mammals. Benoît de Maillet ( April 12 1656 in Saint-Mihiel - January 30 1738 in Marseille) was a French anthropologist Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two Prehistoric amphibian Amphibians (class Amphibia such as Frogs Toads Salamanders Newts Gymnophiona, Sirens and Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia are air-breathing Cold-blooded Vertebrates that have skin covered in scales as opposed to hair or feathers Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands In the nineteenth century it was again revived in modern form by several scientists, including Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834),^[1] Kelvin (1871),^[2] Hermann von Helmholtz (1879) and, somewhat later, by Svante Arrhenius (1903). Friherre Jöns Jacob Berzelius (20 August 1779 &ndash 7 August 1848 was a Swedish chemist William Thomson 1st Baron Kelvin (or Lord Kelvin) OM, GCVO, PC, PRS, FRSE, (26 June 1824 &ndash 17 December 1907 Svante August Arrhenius ( February 19, 1859 &ndash October 2, 1927) was a Swedish Scientist, originally a Physicist Panspermia can be said to be either interstellar (between star systems) or interplanetary (between planets in the same star system). Mechanisms for panspermia include radiation pressure (Arrhenius) and lithopanspermia (microorganisms in rocks) (Kelvin). ^[3][4] Directed panspermia from space to seed Earth (Orgel and Crick, 1973)^[5] or sent from Earth to seed other solar systems (Mautner 1979, 1997)^[6][7] has also been proposed.

There is as yet no compelling evidence to support or contradict it, although the majority view holds that panspermia — especially in its interstellar form — is unlikely given the challenges of survival and transport in space. One new twist to the theory by engineer Thomas Dehel (2006) proposes that plasmoids ejected from the magnetosphere may move the few spores lifted from the Earth's atmosphere with sufficient speed to cross interstellar space to other systems before the spores can be destroyed. ^{[8] [9]}

Sir Fred Hoyle (1915–2001) and Chandra Wickramasinghe (born 1939) were important proponents of the hypothesis who further contended that lifeforms continue to enter the Earth's atmosphere, and may be responsible for epidemic outbreaks, new diseases, and the genetic novelty necessary for macroevolution. Sir Fred Hoyle FRS ( 24 June, 1915  &ndash 20 August, 2001) was an English Astronomer primarily Nalin Chandra Wickramasinghe (born 20 January 1939) is Professor of Applied Mathematics and Astronomy at Cardiff University Macroevolution is a scale of analysis of Evolution in separated Gene pools Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of Species This extension has also been adopted by proponents of Cosmic ancestry. Cosmic ancestry is a hypothesis of the origin of life on Earth based on the Panspermia views of Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe and further

Panspermia per se does not remove the need for life to originate somewhere, but does extend the time frame and environments available. Similarly, it does not necessarily suggest that life originated only once and subsequently spread through the entire Universe, but instead that once started it may be able to spread to other environments suitable for replication. (In the strongest version of panspermia, life never originated, but always existed — this axiom would require amending the big bang theory. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. ) The mechanisms proposed for interstellar panspermia are hypothetical and currently unproven. Interplanetary transfer of material is well documented, as evidenced by meteorites of Martian origin found on Earth. A Mars meteorite is a Meteorite that has landed on Earth and originated from Mars. However, claims that these carry evidence of extraterrestrial lifeforms — let alone viable dormant lifeforms — have either been proven unfounded as a result of terrestrial contamination, misinterpretation, or hoaxing; or are currently hotly disputed.

Interestingly, space probes may also be a viable transport mechanism for interplanetary cross-pollination in our solar system (or even beyond). A space probe is a scientific Space exploration mission in which a Robotic spacecraft leaves the Gravity well of Earth and approaches the However, NASA has implemented strict abiotic procedures to avoid planetary contamination.

Evidence

Until a large portion of the galaxy is surveyed for signs of life or contact is made with other civilizations, the panspermia hypothesis in its fullest meaning will remain difficult to test. There is, however, circumstantial evidence for exogenesis:

Narrow time window for geogenesis

Pre-Cambrian stromatolites in the Siyeh Formation, Glacier National Park. Circumstantial evidence is a collection of Facts that when considered together can be used to infer a conclusion about something unknown The Precambrian ( Pre-Cambrian) is an informal name for the supereon comprising the eons of the Geologic timescale that came before the current Stromatolites (from Greek στρώμα strōma, mattress bed stratum and λιθος lithos, rock are layered accretionary Structures formed in Glacier National Park is located in the US state of Montana, bordering the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. It is in formations such as this that 3. 5 billion year old fossilized algae microbes, the earliest known life on earth, were discovered. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms

The Precambrian fossil record indicates that life appeared soon after the Earth was formed. The Precambrian ( Pre-Cambrian) is an informal name for the supereon comprising the eons of the Geologic timescale that came before the current FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. This would imply that life appears in several hundred million years when conditions are favourable.

• Generally accepted scientific estimates of the age of the Earth place its formation (along with the rest of the Solar system) at about 4. Modern geologists and Geophysicists consider the age of Earth to be around 4 The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. 55 Ga. In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, Gya (for Giga years ago is often used as an unit of Time to denote length of
• The oldest known sedimentary rocks are somewhat altered Hadean formations from the southern tip of Akilia island, West Greenland. Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock) The Hadean (ˈheɪdiən is the geologic eon before the Archean. Akilia Island is in West Greenland, about 22 kilometers south of Nuuk (Godthåb at. Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the These rocks have been dated as no younger than 3. 85 Ga. The Greenland sediments include banded iron beds, thought to be the result of oxygen released by photosynthetic organisms combining with dissolved iron to form insoluble iron oxides. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Carbon deposits in the rock show low levels of carbon-13. Carbon-13 ( 13C) is a natural stable Isotope of Carbon and one of the Environmental isotopes. Kerogen deposits (derived from organic matter) are isotopically light (i. Kerogen is a mixture of organic Chemical compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter in Sedimentary rocks It is insoluble in normal organic Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge e. more negative δ¹³C values) which is indicative of photosynthesis (see Schidlowski, 1988). Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. However, this interpretation is under doubt as the Akilia rocks have undergone high-temperature metamorphosis which is known to be fractionating itself (Gilmour & Wright, 1997). Metamorphic rock is the result of the transformation of an existing rock type the protolith, in a process called Metamorphism, which means "change Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge There is also a lack of corroborating sulphur isotope fractionation (Nisbet, 2000). Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Both the sedimentary origin and the carbon content of the rocks have been questioned (Lepland et al, 2005).
• Fossilized stromatolites or bacterial aggregates, the oldest of which are dated at 3. Stromatolites (from Greek στρώμα strōma, mattress bed stratum and λιθος lithos, rock are layered accretionary Structures formed in The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have 5 billion years old, suggest that photosynthesis might be exogenic. The bacteria that form stromatolites, cyanobacteria, are photosynthetic. Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy Most models of the origin of life have the earliest organisms obtaining energy from reduced chemicals, with the more complex mechanisms of photosynthesis evolving later. In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic
• During the Late Heavy Bombardment of the Earth's Moon about 3. The Late Heavy Bombardment (commonly referred to as the lunar cataclysm, or LHB) is a period of time approximately 3800 to 4100 million years ago ( mya 9 Ga (as evidenced by Apollo lunar samples) impact intensities may have been up to 100x those immediately before or after (Cohen et al. , 2000). From analysis of lunar melts and observations of similar cratering on Mars' highlands, Kring and Cohen (2002) suggest that the LHB was caused by asteroid impacts that affected the entire inner solar system. Asteroids, sometimes called Minor planets or planetoids', are bodies—primarily of the inner Solar System —that are smaller than planets but The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. This is likely to have effectively sterilised Earth's entire planetary surface, including submarine hydrothermal systems that would be otherwise protected (Cohen et al. A hydrothermal vent is a Fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated Water issues , 2000).
• The best estimate of the origin of the Universe, from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, is 13700 million years ago (13. 7 Ga). However, at least one subsequent cycle of star birth/death is required for nucleosynthesis of the C, N and O essential to life, and this process may have taken up to several Ga to produce sufficient quantities (Gilmour et al. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the collective term for the nuclear reactions taking place in Stars to build the nuclei of the heavier elements. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the , 1997). This puts the earliest possible emergence of life in the Universe at ~12. 7 Ga, although there is large uncertainty in the length of the necessary time period.

If life originated on Earth it did so in a window of at most 1 Ga (4. 55 Ga to 3. 5 Ga), most plausibly 400 Ma (3. 9 Ga to 3. 5 Ga), and possibly <100 Ma (3. 9 Ga to 3. 85 Ga) if the Greenland (3. 85 Ga) isotope signal is correct. If life originated elsewhere, the window expands to ~9 Ga. That full length of time might not be available on a single planet, but the Earth has provided a life-friendly environment for at least 3. 5 Ga.

Extremophiles

Evidence has accumulated that some bacteria and archaea are more resistant to extreme conditions than previously recognized, and may be able to survive for very long periods of time even in deep space. These extremophiles could possibly travel in a dormant state between environments suitable for ongoing life such as planetary surfaces. An extremophile is an Organism that thrives in and may even require Physically or Geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to the

• Bacteria and more complex organisms have been found in more extreme environments than thought possible, such as black smokers or oceanic volcanic vents. A black smoker or sea vent is a type of Hydrothermal vent found on the Ocean floor. Some extremophile bacteria have been found living at temperatures above 100 °C; A study revealed that a fraction of bacteria survive heating pulses up to 250 degrees C in vacuum, while similar heating at normal atmospheric pressure leads to the total sterilization of samples. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. ^[10] Other bacteria can thrive in strongly caustic environments, and others at extreme pressures 11 km under the ocean. See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological ^[11]
• Semi-dormant bacteria found in ice cores over a mile beneath the Antarctic lends credibility to the idea that the components of life might survive on the surface of icy comets. An ice core is a Core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice over many years that have re-crystallized and have trapped air bubbles from previous time periods
• There are bacteria that do not rely on photosynthesis for energy. In particular, endolithic bacteria using chemosynthesis have been found inside rocks and in subterranean lakes. An endolith or cryptoendolith is an Organism ( Archaeum, Bacterium, Fungus, Lichen, Alga or Amoeba Chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules (usually Carbon dioxide or Methane) and nutrients into organic matter using the Oxidation
• Deinococcus radiodurans is a radioresistant bacterium that can survive high radiation levels. Deinococcus radiodurans is an extremophilic Bacterium, one of the most Radioresistant organisms known Radioresistance is the property of Organisms which are capable of living in environments with very high levels of Ionizing radiation.
• Dormant bacteria have been isolated from insects in amber 10s Ma old. Annum is one form of the Latin noun meaning Year, not a form normally used for derivatives in modern languages the accusative singular ^[12]
• Recent experiments suggest that if bacteria were somehow sheltered from the radiation of space, perhaps inside a thick meteoroid, they could survive dormant for millions of years.
• Duplicating the harsh conditions of cold interstellar space in their laboratory, NASA scientists have created primitive cells that mimic the membranous structures found in all living things. These chemical compounds may have played a part in the origin of life. ^[13]

Spores

Spores are another potential vector for transporting life through inhospitable and inimical environments, such as the depths of interstellar space. In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions Spores are produced as part of the normal life cycle of many plants, algae, fungi and some protozoans,^[14] and some bacteria produce endospores or cysts during times of stress. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular An endospore is a dormant, tough and non-reproductive structure produced by a small number of Bacteria from the Firmicute phylum A microbial cyst is a resting or Dormant stage of a microorganism usually a Bacterium or a Protist, that helps the organism to tide over unfavorable environmental These structures may be highly resilient while metabolically inactive, and some can function when favorable conditions are restored after exposure to radiation, temperature extremes, desiccation, or other conditions fatal to the parent organism.

Wider range of potential habitats for life

Another line of evidence comes from research that shows there are many more potential habitats for life than Earth-like planets.

• The presence of past liquid water on Mars, suggested by river-like formations on the red planet, was confirmed by the Mars Exploration Rover missions. NASA 's Mars Exploration Rover ( MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of In December of 2006, Michael C. Malin of Malin Space Science Systems published a paper in the journal Science which argued that his camera (the Mars Observer Camera) had found evidence suggesting water was occasionally flowing on the surface of Mars within the last five years. Michael C Malin (born 1950 is an American Astronomer, space-scientist and CEO of Malin Space Science Systems. Malin Space Science Systems (or MSSS) is a San Diego, California company that designs develops and operates instruments to fly on unmanned spacecraft Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific
• Water oceans might exist on Europa, Enceladus, Triton and perhaps other moons in the Solar system. TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Europa (jʊˈroʊpə; or as TemplateInfobox Planet.--> This article is about the moon of TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Triton (ˈtraɪtən, or as in Greek Even moons that are now frozen ice balls might earlier have been melted internally by heat from radioactive rocky cores. Bodies like this may be extremely common throughout the Universe. Lake Vostok in Antarctica, which has been sealed for millions of years, and which may contain unusual life or be sterile, is a possible testing ground for ways to explore these moons. Lake Vostok (восток "east" is the largest of more than 140 subglacial Lakes found under the surface of Earth's southern-most
• Bacteria have been discovered living within warm rock deep in the Earth's crust.

Evidence of extraterrestrial life

Although clearly speculative, the majority view in the scientific community seems to be an acceptance that the existence of life elsewhere in the Universe is highly probable due to the sheer number of potential sites where life could take hold. Today's estimates of values for the Drake Equation suggest the probability of intelligent life in a single galaxy like our own Milky Way may be much smaller than once was thought while the sheer numbers of galaxies in our Universe might make it seem highly probable nevertheless. The Drake equation (also sometimes called the "Green Bank equation" the "Green Bank Formula" or often erroneously labeled the " Sagan equation" The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply Space travel over such vast distances would be limited to below the speed of light by the theory of relativity alone, taking such an incredibly long time to the outside observer, with vast amounts of energy required. This page is about the scientific concept of relativity for philosophical or sociological theories about relativity see Relativism. Nevertheless small groups of researchers like the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) continue to monitor the skies for transmissions from within our own galaxy at least. Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence ( SETI) is the collective name for a number of activities to detect intelligent Extraterrestrial life.

Moreover, the expanded Drake equation of astrobiological proponents like the Rare Earth hypothesists reduces this probability further still. Astrobiology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" grc βίος bios, "life" and grc -λογία In Planetary astronomy and Astrobiology, the Rare Earth hypothesis argues that the emergence of complex Multicellular life ( Metazoa They argue that the conditions required for the evolution of complex multicellular life here on Earth – and therefore by extension intelligent life – may be exceedingly rare in the universe whilst simultaneously conceding that simple single-celled microorganisms might well be abundant. Multicellular organisms are Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having Differentiated cells that perform specialized functions A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually ^[15]

Still under investigation/undetermined

• The Red Rain of Kerala. WaterSamplejpg|thumb|Rain water sample (left and after the particles settled (right In 2003, Satyanarayana et al. proposed that the rain was coloured red by a dust cloud from the Persian Gulf. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. ^[16] Their paper was then published in Aerosol Science and Technology. ^[17] Dr. Godfrey Louis has analyzed the dust and reported finding spores that he has hypothesised are of extraterrestrial origin. Dr Godfrey Louis is a solid-state Physicist, who while at Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam (Kerala achieved notoriety for his controversial hypotheses In April 2006, Louis published his findings in Astrophysics and Space Science. Astrophysics and Space Science is a Peer reviewed Academic journal in the field of Astrophysics and Space science. ^[18][19][20] Louis claimed that the red particles "reproduce plentifully", and that they did so even in "water superheated to nearly 300 °C".

Microstructures in ALH84001 claimed to be of biogenic origin

• A meteorite originating from Mars known as ALH84001 was shown in 1996 to contain microscopic structures resembling small terrestrial nanobacteria. ALH 84001 (full name Allan Hills 84001) is a Meteorite found in Allan Hills, Antarctica in December 1984 by a team of US meteorite hunters from A meteorite is a natural object originating in Outer space that survives an impact with the Earth 's surface ALH 84001 (full name Allan Hills 84001) is a Meteorite found in Allan Hills, Antarctica in December 1984 by a team of US meteorite hunters from Microscopic is a term used to describe objects smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked Eye and which require a lens or Microscope to see Nanobacteria is the name of a possible class of living organisms specifically cell-walled Microorganisms with a size much smaller than the generally accepted When the discovery was announced, many immediately conjectured that the fossils were the first true evidence of extraterrestrial life — making headlines around the world, and even prompting U.S. President Bill Clinton to make a formal televised announcement to mark the event. Extraterrestrial life is Life originating outside of the Earth. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States As of 2003 however, most experts agree that these are not indicative of life, but may instead be formed abiotically from organic molecules. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. It has not yet conclusively been shown how they formed and recent advances in nanobe research has made the find interesting again. Nanobes are tiny filamental Structures first found in some rocks and Sediments Some hypothesize that they are the smallest form of Life

• An Indian and British team of researchers led by Chandra Wickramasinghe reported evidence at the 46th annual meeting of the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE) in San Diego, California on April 29, 2001 that air samples gathered from the stratosphere by the Indian Space Research Organization contained clumps of living cells. Wickramsinghe calls this "unambiguous evidence for the presence of clumps of living cells in air samples from as high as 41 kilometers, well above the local tropopause, above which no air from lower down would normally be transported". ^[21] A reaction report at NASA Ames indicated skepticism towards the premise that Earth life cannot travel to and reside at such altitudes, but noted that some microbes can remain dormant for millions of years, possibly long enough for an interplanetary voyage. NASA Ames Research Center (ARC is a NASA facility located at Moffett Federal Airfield, which covers 43 acres at the borders of the cities of Mountain View ^[22] Max Bernstein, a space scientist associated with SETI and Ames, argues the results should be interpreted with caution, noting that "it would strain one's credulity less to believe that terrestrial organisms had somehow been transported upwards than to assume that extraterrestrial organisms are falling inward". Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence ( SETI) is the collective name for a number of activities to detect intelligent Extraterrestrial life. ^[21]

• On May, 2001, two researchers from the University of Naples claimed to have found live extraterrestrial bacteria inside a meteorite. The University of Naples Federico II (Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II is a university located in Naples, Italy. Geologist Bruno D'Argenio and molecular biologist Giuseppe Geraci claim the bacteria were wedged inside the crystal structure of minerals, but were resurrected when a sample of the rock was placed in a culture medium. They believe that the bacteria were not terrestrial because they survived when the sample was sterilized at very high temperature and washed with alcohol. They also claim that the bacteria's DNA is unlike any on Earth. ^[23] They presented a report on May 11, 2001, concluding that this is the first evidence of extraterrestrial life, documented in its genetic and morphological properties. Some of the bacteria they discovered were found inside meteorites that have been estimated to be over 4. 5 billion years old, and were determined to be related to modern day Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus bacteria on Earth but appears to be a different strain. In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, Gya (for Giga years ago is often used as an unit of Time to denote length of Bacillus subtilis Sporejpg|thumb|right|Sporulating Bacillus subtilis ]] Bacillus subtilis is a Gram-positive, Catalase -positive ^[24]

• Narlikar et al. (2003) took air samples at 41 km over Hyderabad, India — above the tropopause where mixing from the lower atmosphere is unexpected — from which rod and coccoid bacteria were isolated. The tropopause is in the atmosphere between the Troposphere and the Stratosphere. Two bacterial and one fungal species were later independently isolated from these filters which were identified as Bacillus simplex, Staphylococcus pasteuri and Engyodontium album respectively (Wainwright, 2003). ^[25] The experimental procedure suggested that these were not the result of laboratory contamination, although similar isolation experiments at separate laboratories were unsuccessful. That these are common terrestrial organisms is not necessarily contraindicative of panspermia, since a prediction of the hypothesis is that life throughout the Universe is derived from the same ancestral stock. Assuming they are not contaminants, did the micro-organisms come from the Earth or space? That there were no volcanic eruptions — the only known way for terrestrial particles to mix up beyond the tropopause — prior to sampling suggests against a terrestrial source. In either case, Wainright (2003) points out that some part of the panspermia hypothesis is validated: either terrestrial micro-organisms are indeed derived from space, or they are capable of contaminating our local space in a viable form. Measuring the isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen in the micro-organisms from the stratosphere could reveal whether they come from Earth or space.

• Of three biological experiments on the Mars lander Viking, two gave results that were initially indicative of life. The two Viking spacecraft each carried four types of Biological Experiments to the surface of Mars in the late 1970s NASA 's Viking program consisted of a pair of space probes sent to Mars, Viking 1 and Viking 2. However, the similar results from heated controls, how the release of indicative gas tapered off, and the lack of organic molecules in soil samples all suggest that the results were the result of an abiotic chemical reaction rather than biological metabolism. Scientific controls allow Experiments to study one Variable at a time and are a vital part of the Scientific method. Later experiments showed that terrestrial clays could reproduce the results of the two positive Viking experiments. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Despite this, some of the Viking experiments' designers remain convinced that they are diagnostic for life.

Widely discounted

• A NASA research group found a small number of Streptococcus mitis bacteria living inside the camera of the Surveyor 3 spacecraft when it was brought back to Earth by Apollo 12. Streptococcus mitis is a Mesophilic alpha-haemolytic Species of Streptococcus that inhabits the human Mouth. Surveyor 3 was the third lander of the Surveyor program that explored the Moon. They believed that the bacteria survived since the time of the craft's launch to the moon. ^[26] However, these reports are no longer tenable: see Reports of Streptococcus mitis on the moon. As part of the Apollo 12 mission the camera from the Surveyor 3 probe was brought back to Earth

• Over the past century thousands of people have reported UFO sightings in countries all over the world. Nevertheless, these reports have caused disagreements among experts as to their validity,^[27] and no widely accepted evidence has yet been published in mainstream scientific writings to suggest that intelligent alien species have ever visited the Earth.

Falsified

• In 1962, Claus et al. announced the discovery of 'organised elements' embedded in the Orgueil meteorite. These elements were subsequently shown to be either pollens (including that of ragwort) and fungal spores (Fitch & Anders, 1963) that had contaminated the sample, or crystals of the mineral olivine. Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Senecio is a Genus of the daisy family ( Asteraceae)that includes ragworts and groundsels. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions The Mineral olivine (when gem-quality also called Peridot) is a Magnesium Iron silicate with the formula ( Mg

• In 2002, the discovery of glycine (the simplest amino acid) in interstellar clouds was reported. Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this ^[28][29] Subsequent investigation has refuted these claims. ^[30]

Hoaxes

• A separate fragment of the Orgueil meteorite (kept in a sealed glass jar since its discovery) was found in 1965 to have a seed capsule embedded in it, whilst the original glassy layer on the outside remained undisturbed. Despite great initial excitement, the seed was found to be that of a European Juncaceae or Rush plant that had been glued into the fragment and camouflaged using coal dust. The Juncaceae, or the Rush Family, is a rather small monocot Flowering plant family Coal dust is a fine powdered form of Coal, which is created by the crushing grinding or pulverizing of coal The outer 'fusion layer' was in fact glue. Whilst the perpetrator of this hoax is unknown, it is thought he sought to influence the 19th century debate on spontaneous generation — rather than panspermia — by demonstrating the transformation of inorganic to biological matter. In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic

Objections to panspermia and exogenesis

• Life as we know it requires heavy elements carbon, nitrogen and oxygen (C, N and O, respectively) to exist at sufficient densities and temperatures for the chemical reactions between them to occur. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the These conditions are not widespread in the Universe, so this limits the distribution of life as an ongoing process. First, the elements C, N and O are only created after at least one cycle of star birth/death: this is a limit to the earliest time life could have arisen. Second, densities of elements sufficient for the formation of more complex molecules necessary to life (such as amino acids) only occur in molecular dust clouds (10⁹–10¹² particles/m³), and (following their collapse) in solar systems. Third, temperatures must be lower than those in stars (elements are stripped of electrons: a plasma state) but higher than in interstellar space (reaction rates are too low). In Physics and Chemistry, plasma is an Ionized Gas, in which a certain proportion of Electrons are free rather than being bound Interstellar Space was the one of the final studio albums recorded by the saxophonist John Coltrane before his death in 1967 originally-released posthumously This restricts ongoing life to planetary environments where heavy elements are present at high densities, so long as temperatures are sufficient for plausible reaction rates. Note this does not restrict dormant forms of life to these environments, so this argument only contradicts the widest interpretation of panspermia — that life is ongoing and is spread across many different environments throughout the Universe — and presupposes that any life needs those elements, which the proponents of alternative biochemistries do not consider certain. Alternative biochemistry is the speculative Biochemistry of alien Life forms that differ radically from those on Earth.

• Space is a damaging environment for life, as it would be exposed to radiation, cosmic rays and stellar winds. Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on A stellar wind is a flow of neutral or charged gas ejected from the upper atmosphere of a Star. Studies of bacteria frozen in Antarctic glaciers have shown that DNA has a half-life of 1. "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page 1 million years under such conditions, suggesting that while life may have potentially moved around within the Solar System it is unlikely that it could have arrived from an interstellar source. ^[31] Environments may exist within meteors or comets that are somewhat shielded from these hazards. A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail —

• Bacteria would not survive the immense heat and forces of an impact on Earth — no conclusions (whether positive or negative) have yet been reached on this point. However most of the heat generated when a meteor enters the Earth's atmosphere is carried away by ablation and the interiors of freshly landed meteorites are rarely heated much and are often cold. Ablation is defined as the removal of material from the surface of an object by Vaporization, Chipping, or other erosive processes A meteorite is a natural object originating in Outer space that survives an impact with the Earth 's surface For example, a sample of hundreds of nematode worms on the space shuttle Columbia survived its crash landing from 63 km inside a 4 kg locker, and samples of already dead moss were not damaged. The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common Space Shuttle Columbia ( NASA Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-102) was the first spaceworthy Space shuttle in NASA 's This article is about the atmospheric mesosphere for the Earth's mantle see Mesosphere (mantle. Though this is not a very good example, being protected by the man-made locker and possibly pieces of the shuttle, it lends some support to the idea that life could survive a trip through the atmosphere. ^[32] The existence of Martian meteorites and Lunar meteorites on Earth suggests that transfer of material from other planets to Earth happens regularly. A Mars meteorite is a Meteorite that has landed on Earth and originated from Mars. A Lunar meteorite is a Meteorite that is known to have originated on the Moon.

• Occam's Razor implies that when developing a hypothesis, we should avoid making evidentially unsupported presumptions about things if at all possible. Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, See heuristic arguments. heuristic (hyu̇-ˈris-tik is a method to help solve a problem commonly an informal method From this perspective, geogenesis appears to be the default assumption when compared with panspermia or exogenesis. The former assumes a single step: that life originated on Earth, where it is now commonly observed, excluding the presumption that life formed elsewhere, in places where it has never been observed before. Geogenesis eliminates the unsupported presumption of life existing beyond the Earth, but requires a lot to happen in a relatively short time frame in order for life to arise. Exogenesis allows for a longer period of time than could be offered on Earth. Given that an understanding of life's emergence remains speculative, however, the perception of which presumption (life beyond Earth or life emerging rapidly) is preferable can be less than clear.

• Supporters of exogenesis also argue that on a larger scale, for life to emerge in one place in the Universe and subsequently spread to other planets would be simpler than similar life emerging separately on different planets. Thus, finding any evidence of extraterrestrial life similar to ours would lend credibility to exogenesis. However, this again assumes that the emergence of life in the entire Universe is rare enough as to limit it to one or few events or origination sites. Exogenesis still requires life to have originated from somewhere, most probably some form of geogenesis. Given the immense expanse of the entire Universe, there is a higher probability that there exists (or has existed) another Earth-like planet that has yielded life (geogenesis) than not. This explanation is more preferred under Occam's Razor than exogenesis since it theorizes that the creation of life is a matter of probability and can occur when the correct conditions are met rather than in exogenesis that assumes it is a singular event or that Earth did not meet those conditions on its own. In other words, exogenesis theorizes only one or few origins of life in the Universe, whereas geogenesis theorizes that it is a matter of probability depending on the conditions of the celestial body. Consider that even the most rare events on Earth can happen multiple times and independent of one another. However, since to date no extraterrestrial life has been confirmed, both theories still suffer from lack of information and too many unidentified variables.

Directed panspermia

A second prominent proponent of panspermia was the late Nobel prize winner Professor Francis Crick, OM FRS, who along with Leslie Orgel proposed the theory of directed panspermia in 1973. Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph The Order of Merit is a British and Commonwealth Order bestowed by the Monarch. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 Leslie Eleazer Orgel FRS ( January 12, 1927 &ndash October 27, 2007) was a British chemist This suggests that the seeds of life may have been purposely spread by an advanced extraterrestrial civilization. Crick argues that small grains containing DNA, or the building blocks of life, fired randomly in all directions is the best, most cost effective strategy for seeding life on a compatible planet at some time in the future. The strategy might have been pursued by a civilization facing catastrophic annihilation, or hoping to terraform planets for later colonization. The terraforming (literally "Earth-shaping" of a Planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its Later, after biologists had proposed that an "RNA world" might be involved in the origin of life, Crick noted that he had been overly pessimistic about the chances of life originating on Earth. The RNA world hypothesis proposes that a world filled with life based on Ribonucleic acid (RNA predated current life based on Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA ^[33] See: Francis Crick. Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph

Directed panspermia in reverse, from Earth to new solar systems, has been proposed to expand life in space. ^[34]For example, microbial payloads launched by solar sails at speeds up to 0. 0001 c (30,000 m/s) would reach targets at 10 to 100 light-years in 0. 1 million to 1 million years. Fleets of microbial capsules can be aimed at clusters of new stars in star-forming clouds where they may land on planets, or captured by asteroids and comets and later delivered to planets. Payloads may contain extremophiles for diverse environments and cyanobacteria similar to early microorganisms. Hardy multicellular organisms (rotifer cysts) may be included to induce higher evolution. ^[35]

The probability of hitting the target zone can be calculated from where A(target) is the cross-section of the target area, dy is the positional uncertainty at arrival; a - constant (depending on units), r(target) is the radius of the target area; v the velocity of the probe; (tp) the targeting precision (arcsec/yr); and d the distance to the target (all units in SIU). Guided by high-resolution astrometry of 1×10⁻⁵ arcsec/yr, almost nearby target stars (Alpha PsA, Beta Pictoris) can be seeded by milligrams of launched microbes; while seeding the Rho Ophiochus star-forming cloud requires hundreds of kilograms of dispersed capsules. ^[36] The figure shows the launching of solar sail ships with effective thicknesses that will achieve final velocities as shown. The figure also shows the dispersion and capture of the microbial payload at the target solar system.

Directed panspermia is altruistic and may be motivated by life-centered “panbiotic ethics” that aims to secure and propagate our form of gene/protein organic life, and to establish life as a controlling force in nature.

Theoretically, by humans traveling to other celestial bodies such as the moon, there is a chance that they carry with them microorganisms or other organic materials ubiquitous on Earth, thus raising the curious possibility that we can seed life on other planetary bodies. The same can be said for unmanned probes manufactured on Earth. This is a concern among space researchers who try to prevent Earth contamination from distorting data, especially in regards to finding possible extraterrestrial life. Even the best sterilization techniques can not guarantee that potentially invasive biologic or organic materials will not be unintentionally carried along. So far, however, in the limited amount of space exploration conducted by humans, "terrestrial pollution" does not appear to be a problem although no concrete studies have investigated this. The harsh environments encountered throughout the rest of the solar system so far do not seem to support complex terrestrial life. However, it should be noted that matter exchange in form of meteor impacts has existed and will exist in the solar system even without human intervention. As evidence, some argue that anomalies found within Martian meteorite ALH 84001 indicate that bacteria could travel from planet to planet without intelligent help. ALH 84001 (full name Allan Hills 84001) is a Meteorite found in Allan Hills, Antarctica in December 1984 by a team of US meteorite hunters from

Deliberate directed panspermia would seed space objects. The securing of future life would need to balance against interference with science. This interference can be minimized by targeting remote solar systems where life would not have evolved yet. Seeding a few hundred young solar systems would secure future life while leaving billions of stars pristine for exploration.

There exists speculation on a connection to the Titius-Bode Law, arguing that Earth may have received seeds of life by directed panspermia, because the extraterrestrial senders knew that Earth belonged to a solar system with stable Titius-Bode structure. See: External Link "Directed Panspermia and Titius-Bode"

Recent Experiment

After enduring a 12-day orbital mission and a fiery reentry, an unmanned spacecraft, Foton-M3, awaits retrieval in a field in Kazakhstan. The 5,500-pound capsule, seven-feet in diameter, housed experiments testing the lithopanspermia theory. The capsule contained, among other things, lichen that were exposed to the radiation of space. Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Scientists also strapped basalt and granite disks riddled with cyanobacteria to the capsule's heat shield to see if the microorganisms could survive the brutal conditions of reentry. Alas, this batch didn't arrive alive but the scientists believe that it was at a disadvantage.

"When compared to a real meteorite," says Rene Demets, the European Space Agency's coordinator for space biological experiments for this mission, "the heat penetrates quite deeply into our test samples". ^[37]

See also

• Anthropic principle
• Astrochemistry
• Back-contamination
• Biogenesis
• Drake equation
• Fermi paradox
• Fine-tuned universe
• Forward-contamination
• Human evolution
• Important publications in origin of life
• List of molecules in interstellar space
• Creation myth
• Origin of life
• Paleoclimatology
• Planetary habitability
• Rare Earth hypothesis
• Red rain in Kerala
• Star Jelly
• Timeline of the Big Bang
• Universal common ancestor

References

• Rhawn Joseph, "Astrobiology, the Origin of Life and the Death of Darwinism", University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-9700733-8-0
• Cohen, B. , Swindle, T. and Kring, D. (2000) Support for the lunar cataclysm hypothesis from lunar meteorite impact melt ages. Science, 290(5497):1754 -- 1756.
• Crick F, 'Life, Its Origin and Nature', Simon and Schuster, 1981, ISBN 0-7088-2235-5
• Gilmour I, Wright I, Wright J 'Origins of Earth and Life', The Open University, 1997, ISBN 0-7492-8182-0
• FITCH FW, ANDERS E (1963) ORGANIZED ELEMENT — POSSIBLE IDENTIFICATION IN ORGUEIL METEORITE. SCIENCE 140 (357): 1097
• Hoyle F, 'The Intelligent Universe', Michael Joseph Limited, London 1983, ISBN 0-7181-2298-4
• Kring DA, Cohen BA (2002) Cataclysmic bombardment throughout the inner solar system 3. 9-4. 0 Ga. J GEOPHYS RES-PLANET 107 (E2): art. no. 5009
• Lepland A, van Zuilen M, Arrhenius G, Whitehouse M and Fedo C, Questioning the evidence for Earth's earliest life — Akilia revisited, Geology; January 2005; v. 33; no. 1; p. 77-79; DOI: 10. 1130/G20890. 1
• Louis G, Kumar AS (2006) The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin, Astrophysics and Space Science DOI: 10.1007/s10509-005-9025-4
• NAGY B, CLAUS G, HENNESSY DJ (1962) ORGANIC PARTICLES EMBEDDED IN MINERALS IN ORGUEIL AND IVUNA CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITES. NATURE 193 (4821): 1129
• Narlikar JV, Lloyd D, Wickramasinghe NC, et al. (2003) Balloon experiment to detect micro-organisms in the outer space. ASTROPHYS SPACE SCI 285 (2): 555-562
• Nisbet, E. (2000) The realms of Archaean life. Nature, 405(6787):625 -- 626.
• SCHIDLOWSKI, M. (1988) A 3,800-MILLION-YEAR ISOTOPIC RECORD OF LIFE FROM CARBON IN SEDIMENTARY-ROCKS. Nature, 333(6171):313 -- 318.
• Wainwright, M. (2003) A microbiologist looks at panspermia. Astrophysics and Space Science, 285(2):563 -- 570

External links

• Cosmic Ancestry: Life comes from space because life comes from life, by Brig Klyce
• Did Life Come from Another World? Scientific American, November 2005.
• Creationism versus Darwinism: A third alternative , by N. Chandra Wickramasinghe & Brig Klyce
• The Orgueil meteorite hoax
• Panspermia today , spread life to outer space - beinspace
• About stromatolites
• http://www.panspermia.org/ — Modern panspermia advocates. This site claims cosmic ancestry; not only that life on Earth originated in space, but that life has existed since the beginning of time, as well as an alternative explanation of evolution.
• http://www.iscid.org/brig-klyce-chat.php — cosmic ancestry
• http://www.nature.com/nsu/040216/040216-20.html
• http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/849 — Panspermia criticism from the intelligent design community
• Francis Crick's handwritten notes (PDF) for a lecture on Directed Panspermia, dated 5 November 1976. Intelligent Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• panspermia from Earth to other planets,beinspace
• http://www.tonderai.co.uk/earth/origins.php#limits
• Discovery Channel — Space shuttle "Columbia" proves that atmosphere entry is possible
• Mysterious red cells might be aliens — CNN Report by Jebediah Reed
• Directed Panspermia and Titius-Bode - Speculation on a cross connection