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Switchgrass

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Liliopsida
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Panicum
Species: P. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Liliopsida is a Botanical name for the class containing the family Liliaceae (or Lily Family Poales is an order of Flowering plants in the Monocotyledons and includes families of plants such as the grasses, Bromeliads, Poaceae or Gramineae is a family in the Class Liliopsida of the flowering plants. Panicum is a large genus of about 450 species of grasses native throughout the tropical regions of the world with a few species extending into the northern temperate virgatum
Binomial name
Panicum virgatum
L.

Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Grass is the common word that generally describes Monocotyledonous green Plants The family Gramineae ( Poaceae) are the "true grasses" and include In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. The tallgrass prairie is an Ecosystem native to central North America, with fire as its primary periodic disturbance It can be found in remnant prairies, along roadsides, pastures and as an ornamental plant in gardens. Pasture is land with Herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of Ungulate Livestock as part of a Farm or Ranch. Ornamental plants are typically grown in the flower Garden or as House plants Most commonly they are grown for the display of their Flowers Other common A garden is a planned space usually outdoors set aside for the display cultivation and enjoyment of Plants and other forms of Nature. Other common names for it include tall panic grass, Wobsqua grass, lowland switchgrass, blackbent, tall prairiegrass, wild redtop and thatchgrass. Agrostis ( bent or bentgrass) is a genus of over 100 species belonging to the grass family Poaceae. In his 2006 State of the Union Address, President George W. Bush touted switchgrass as an efficient and environmentally friendly biofuel that could reduce the USA's dependence on petroleum. The 2006 State of the Union Address was delivered by United States President George W George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit

Contents

Properties

Switchgrass is a hardy, perennial rhizomatous grass which begins growth in late spring. A perennial plant or perennial ( Latin per, "through" annus, "year" is a Plant that lives for more than In Botany, a rhizome is a horizontal stem of a Plant that is usually found underground often sending out Roots and Shoots It can grow up to 1. 8-2. 2 m high but is typically shorter than Big Bluestem grass or Indiangrass. Big Bluestem ( Andropogon gerardii) is a tall bunch grass native to much of the Prairie and Great Plains regions of North Indiangrass ( Sorghastrum nutans) also called Indian grass is a North American Prairie grass and is the official State grass of both The leaves are 30-90 cm long, with a prominent midrib. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. Switchgrass uses C4 carbon fixation, giving it an advantage in conditions of drought and high temperature. C4 carbon fixation is one of three biochemical mechanisms along with C3 and CAM photosynthesis, functioning in land Plants to A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply [1] Its flowers have a well-developed panicle, often up to 60 cm long and bear a good crop of fruits. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also A panicle is a compound Raceme, a loose much-branched indeterminate Inflorescence with pedicellate Flowers (and Fruit The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. The fruits are 3-6 mm long and up to 1. 5 mm wide, and are developed from a single-flowered spikelet. A raceme is a type of Inflorescence that is unbranched and indeterminate and bears pedicellate Flowers &mdash flowers having short Both glumes are present and well developed. Chaff (tʃɑːf or /tʃæf/ depending on dialect &ndash both to rhyme with "half" is the inedible dry scaly protective casings of the seeds of Cereal grain, or When ripe, the seeds sometimes take on a pink or dull-purple tinge, and turn golden brown with the foliage of the plant in the fall. Switchgrass is a self-seeding crop, which means farmers do not have to plant and re-seed after annual harvesting. Once established, a switchgrass stand can survive for ten years or longer. [2] Also, unlike corn, switchgrass can grow on marginal lands and requires little or no fertilizer to thrive. [2]

Uses

Switchgrass is grazed by certain animals, used as ground cover to control erosion, farmed as forage for livestock. Grazing generally describes a type of Predation in which an Herbivore feeds on Plants (such as Grasses, or more broadly on a multicellular Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Forage is plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems eaten by grazing Livestock. Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food

Switchgrass is rich in cellulose, making it attractive as a source for cellulosic ethanol. Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants [3] It is at the core of an alternative fuel strategy announced by Tennessee Governor Phil Bredesen in January 2007. Tennessee ( is a state located in the Southern United States. Philip Norman "Phil" Bredesen (born November 21, 1943) is the 48th Governor of Tennessee, having served since 2003 [4]

As a drought resistant ornamental grass, it is easily grown in average to wet soils and in full sun to part shade. Ornamental grasses are Grasses grown as Ornamental plants They have become increasingly popular in Gardens in recent years Establishment is recommended in the spring, at the same time as corn is planted.

Background

Much of North America, especially the prairies of the Midwest, was once home to vast swaths of native grasses including Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), Eastern Gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), Big Bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), Little Bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and others. Indiangrass ( Sorghastrum nutans) also called Indian grass is a North American Prairie grass and is the official State grass of both Big Bluestem ( Andropogon gerardii) is a tall bunch grass native to much of the Prairie and Great Plains regions of North Little bluestem ( Schizachyrium scoparium) is a North American Prairie Grass. As settlers began spreading out across the continent, the native grasses were replaced by crops such as corn and wheat. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Introduced grasses such as fescue, bluegrass, and orchardgrass [5] replaced the native grasses. Fescue ( Festuca) is a Genus of about 300 Species of perennial tufted Grasses belonging to the grass family Poaceae Poa is a Genus of about 500 Species of grasses native to the temperate regions of both hemispheres Dactylis glomerata ( Cocksfoot or Orchard Grass or Cocksfoot Grass) is a common grass, native to Europe, Asia

Today, as biofuels are becoming a mainstay in the headlines, the public is hearing about Switchgrass as an excellent prospect for providing ethanol for our cars. There are also other benefits and opportunities for switchgrass in our economy.

Distribution

Switchgrass is very versatile and adaptable. It can grow and even thrive in many weather conditions, lengths of growing seasons, soil types and land conditions. Its distribution spans south of latitude 55°N from Saskatchewan to Nova Scotia and south over most of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. Saskatchewan (səˈskætʃəwən) is a prairie province in Canada, which has an area of 588276 Nova Scotia (ˌnəʊvəˈskəʊʃə ( Latin for New Scotland; Alba Nuadh Nouvelle-Écosse is a Canadian province located on Canada 's The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains, often called the Rockies, are a Mountain range in western North America. [6] As a warm season perennial grass, most of its growth occurs from late spring through early fall and becomes dormant and unproductive during colder months. A perennial plant or perennial ( Latin per, "through" annus, "year" is a Plant that lives for more than Thus, the productive season in the northern regions can be as short as three months, but up to eight months in the Gulf Coast area. The Gulf Coast region of the United States comprises the coasts of states which border the Gulf of Mexico. [7]

Soil conservation

Further information: Mine reclamation, Restoration ecology, and Revegetation

Switchgrass is useful for soil conservation and amendment, particularly in the United States and Canada where switchgrass is endemic. Mine reclamation is the process of creating useful Landscapes that meet a variety of goals typically creating productive Ecosystems (or sometimes industrial or municipal Restoration ecology is the study of renewing a degraded damaged or destroyed Ecosystem through active human intervention Revegetation is the process of replanting and rebuilding the Soil of disturbed land Soil conservation is set of management strategies for prevention of Soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse Switchgrass has a deep fibrous root system – nearly as deep as the plant is tall. Since it, along with other native grasses and forbs, once covered the plains of the United States that are now the Corn Belt, one could say that they still help feed the world today. Forbs are Herbaceous Flowering plants that are not Graminoids ( grasses, sedges and rushes) Grain Belt The Grain Belt is an informal name for a United States region composed of the Prairie -region states across the northern Midwest Their deep fibrous roots left a very deep rich layer of organic matter in the soils; making those mollisol soils some of the most productive in the world. Mollisols are a soil order in USA soil taxonomy. Mollisols form in semi-arid to semi-humid areas typically under a Grassland cover By returning switchgrass and other perennial prairie grasses to the agricultural scene, many marginal soils will benefit from their deep root systems through increased organic matter levels, permeability, and fertility.

Soil erosion, both from wind and water, is of great concern in regions where switchgrass can grow. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Due to its height, switchgrass can form the low part of a wind erosion barrier. [8] Its root system is excellent for holding soil in place. Some highway departments (for example, KDOT) have used it in their seed mixes when re-establishing growth along roadways. Click here for the Kansas Department of Transportation KDOT is a commercial Radio station located in Reno Nevada, broadcasting on 104 [9] It can also be used on strip mine sites, dikes[8], and pond dams. Surface mining is a type of Mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed Conservation districts in many parts of the United States use it to control erosion in grass waterways because of its excellent ability to anchor soils while also doubling as native habitat for wildlife. Conservation districts are Government entities that help control the use of land and Water in U

Game cover

Switchgrass is well-known among wildlife conservationists as a favorite among the upland game bird species such as pheasant, quail, grouse and song birds. Its small seeds are well-liked among them. Wild turkeys are also commonly found in Switchgrass stands. Depending on how thickly switchgrass is planted, and what it is partnered with, it can offer excellent forage and cover for a wide variety of other wildlife across the country. For those producers who have switchgrass stands on their farm, they consider this benefit an aesthetic one as much as an environmental one because they enjoy watching the wildlife. Some members of Prairie Lands Bio-Products, Inc. in Iowa have even turned this benefit into a profitable one by leasing their switchgrass land for hunting during the proper seasons. [10] In an agricultural setting, like growing many acres of switchgrass for biofuel, the advantages to wildlife can still stand. Although the Wildlife Society suggests that rather than harvest an entire field at once, strip harvesting could be practiced so the entire habitat is not removed at one time for the wildlife that have made the switchgrass their home. [11]

Preservation of native plant species

There is another type of conservation that doesn't draw as much attention as soil and wildlife conservation normally does: the conservation of our native plant species, such as switchgrass. By bringing switchgrass to the front of the news, Americans are revisiting a part of their nation's past that many have perhaps never thought about: when North American was covered in "that vast seas of grasses, so thick and high that pioneers said it could swallow a rider on horseback. "[2] Maybe this will stir interest by a broader spectrum of the population in switchgrass and other native species that were once a part of our landscape which have gone to the wayside. Several groups help inform the public about native plant species, such as a scholarly group at the University of Idaho which publishes the Native Plants Journal[12] to educate the public about native plant species, as well as groups like Grow Native!,[13] international organizations such as the National Audubon Society, and state organizations like the Virginia Native Plant Society. The University of Idaho is Idaho 's oldest public university located in the rural city of Moscow in Latah County. The National Audubon Society is an American non-profit Environmental organization dedicated to conservancy [14] These groups offer information and anecdotes about native species' habitat, history, pests, growth patterns, positive and negative attributes.

Biofuel

Panicum virgatum 'Heavy Metal' switchgrass in early summer
Panicum virgatum 'Heavy Metal' switchgrass in early summer

Switchgrass is often considered a good candidate for biofuel — especially ethanol fuel — production due to its hardiness against poor soil and climate conditions, rapid growth and low fertilization and herbicide requirements. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Switchgrass is also perennial, unlike corn, and has a huge biomass output, the raw plant material used to make biofuel, of 6-10 tons per acre. A perennial plant or perennial ( Latin per, "through" annus, "year" is a Plant that lives for more than Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production The acre is a unit of Area in a number of different systems including the imperial and U [15][2] President George W. Bush mentioned this usage in his 2006 State of the Union address [16] [17][18]; since then, over $100 million has been invested into researching the potential fuel source[19]. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. The 2006 State of the Union Address was delivered by United States President George W

Switchgrass has the potential to produce the biomass required for production of up to 100 gallons (380 liters) of ethanol per metric ton. [20] This gives switchgrass the potential to produce 1000 gallons of ethanol per acre, compared to 665 gallons for sugarcane and 400 gallons for corn. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica [21]

However, there is debate on the viability of switchgrass, and all other biofuels, as an efficient energy source. University of California, Berkeley professor Tad Patzek argues that switchgrass has a negative ethanol fuel energy balance, requiring 45 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced. The University of California Berkeley (also referred to as Cal, Berkeley and UC Berkeley) is a major research university located in Berkeley Energy balance reports In 1995 the USDA released a report stating that the net energy balance of corn ethanol in [22] On the other side, David Bransby, professor of energy crops at Auburn University, has found that for every unit of energy input, switchgrass yields four units out. Auburn University ( AU or Auburn) is a State university located in Auburn, Alabama, U [23] In a 2007 lecture Professor Richard Muller, also of the University of California, Berkeley, noted that it is the conversion of switchgrass biomass into ethanol which introduces significant inefficiencies. He also noted that The Helios Project at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory is actively trying to engineer metabolic pathways in bacteria to more efficiently convert cellulose to ethanol. The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( LBNL) is a U Bransby's work was the source for President Bush's comments in the 2006 State of the Union address.

Switchgrass is being used to heat small industrial and farm buildings in Germany and China through a process used to make a low-quality natural gas substitute. [2] It can also be pressed into fuel pellets which are burned in pellet stoves used to heat homes, which typically burn corn or wood pellets. A pellet mill is a type of mill used to create cylindrical pellets from a mixture of dry powdered feedstock such as Flour, Sawdust, or Grass A pellet stove is a Stove that burns compressed wood or biomass pellets to create a source of heat for residential and sometimes industrial spaces Wood pellets are a type of Wood fuel, generally made from compacted Sawdust. [24]

In the spring of 2008, 1,000 acres (4. 0 km²) of switchgrass will be planted near Guymon, Oklahoma, in the Oklahoma Panhandle to study the feasibility of utilizing the crop for biofuel. Guymon is a city in and the County seat of Texas County, Oklahoma, United States. It will be the largest stand ever planted for such purposes. The project is being spearheaded by the Oklahoma Bioenergy Center, a state project backed by Governor Brad Henry. Charles Bradford "Brad" Henry (born July 10, 1963) is the Governor of the U [25]

Forages

Switchgrass is an excellent forage for cattle; however, it has shown toxicity in horses, sheep and goats[26][27][28] through chemical compounds known as saponins, which cause photosensitivity and liver damage in these animals. Forage is plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems eaten by grazing Livestock. Photosensitivity is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving Photons especially Visible light. Researchers are continuing to learn more about the specific conditions under which the switchgrass must be in order to cause harm to these species, but until more is discovered, it is recommended that switchgrass not be fed to them. For cattle, however, it can be fed as hay, or grazed.

Grazing switchgrass calls for watchful management practices to ensure survival of the stand. It is recommended that grazing begin when there is 18 – 22 inches of growth, to stop grazing when there are 8 – 12 inches of stubble left, and to rest the pasture 30 – 45 days between grazing periods[29]. Switchgrass becomes very stemmy and unpalatable as it matures, but during the target grazing period, it is a highly favorable forage with a relative feed value (RFV) of 90-104[30]. The grass' upright growth pattern places its growing point off the soil surface onto its stem, so leaving 8 – 12 inches of stubble is important for regrowth. When harvesting switchgrass for hay, the first cutting occurs at the late boot stage – around mid-June. This should allow for a second cutting in mid-August, leaving enough regrowth to survive the winter. [31]

Establishment

Once established, it takes three years for a stand of switchgrass to reach its full potential[24]. According to David Bransby at Auburn University, it will produce a quarter to a third of its full potential in its first year and two-thirds in its second year[32]. It is sometimes suggested that the stand not be harvested during the establishment year[24]. Afterwards, each region has its own recommendations for fertilizer rates. The timing of harvesting depends upon how the switchgrass is to be used, and weed control can be addressed with limited herbicides, controlled burns, and mechanical methods.

See also

References

  1. ^ Silzer, Tanya (January 2000). See also Algology Algae fuel, also called algal fuel, oilgae, algaeoleum or third generation biofuel, is a Biofuel Brachypodium distachyon, commonly called purple false brome, is a grass Species native to southern Europe, northern Africa An energy crop is a Plant grown as a low cost and low maintenance Harvest used to make Biofuels or directly exploited for its energy content The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, usually referred to as PNAS, is the official journal of the United Panicum virgatum L., Switchgrass, prairie switchgrass, tall panic grass. Rangeland Ecosystems & Plants Fact Sheets. University of Saskatchewan Department of Plant Sciences. Retrieved on 2007-12-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1609 - Biblioteca Ambrosiana opens its reading room the second public library of Europe.
  2. ^ a b c d e Secter, Bob. Plentiful switch grass emerges as breakthrough biofuel. The San Diego Union-Tribune. The San Diego Union-Tribune is a daily Newspaper published in San Diego California, by the Copley Press. Retrieved on 2008-05-24. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned
  3. ^ M. R. Schmer, K. P. Vogel, R. B. Mitchell, and R. K. Perrin (2008). "Net energy of cellulosic ethanol from switchgrass". PNAS 105 (2): 464-469. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, usually referred to as PNAS, is the official journal of the United doi:10.1073/pnas.0704767105. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  4. ^ Phil Bredesen Governor, State of Tennessee
  5. ^ Ernst Seed Catalog Web Page (2007). Switchgrass and Warm Season Grass Planting Guide. Ernst Conservation Seeds. Retrieved on 2007-12-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1609 - Biblioteca Ambrosiana opens its reading room the second public library of Europe.
  6. ^ PLANTS Profile for Panicum virgatum (switchgrass). United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily.
  7. ^ Ball, D. M. ; Hoveland, C. S. , and Lacefield, G. D. (2002). Southern Forages, 3rd edition, International Plant Nutrition Institute, p. 26. ISBN 0-9629598-3-9.  
  8. ^ a b Plant Fact Sheet, Panicum virgatum (switchgrass). United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Plant Materials Program (2006-05-06). The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily.
  9. ^ KDOT Bid Tabs. Kansas Department of Transportation. The Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT) is a state government organization in charge of maintaining public roadways of the U Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
  10. ^ Hipple, Patricia C. ; Duffy, Michael D. (2002). "Farmers' Motivations for Adoption of Switchgrass" (PDF) in Fifth National Symposium, New Crops and New Uses, Strength in Diversity. Jules Janick, Anna Whipkey Trends in New Crops and New Uses: 252-266, Alexandria, Virginia: American Society for Horticultural Science. Alexandria is an Independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. ISBN 0097075655. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne  
  11. ^ Bies, Laura (2006-11-01). "[1203:TBEIGE2. 0. CO;2 The Biofuels Explosion: Is Green Energy Good for Wildlife?]". Wildlife Society Bulletin 34 (4): 1203-1205. doi:10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[1203:TBEIGE2. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. 0. CO;2].  
  12. ^ About the Journal. Native Plants Journal. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
  13. ^ About Grow Native!. Grow Native!. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
  14. ^ Virginia Native Plant Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
  15. ^ bioenergy.ornl.gov Switchgrass Profile. David Bransby, Auburn University. Retrieved on 2007-01-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France.
  16. ^ Adrienne Mand Lewin (2006-02-01). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Switchgrass: The Super Plant Savior?. ABC News. This article is about the American news organization See also ABC News (disambiguation ABC News is a division of American
  17. ^ Switch Grass: Alternative Energy Source?. National Public Radio (2006-02-01). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen
  18. ^ Dana Bash, Suzanne Malveaux, et al (2006-02-01). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Bush has plan to end oil 'addiction'. CNN. Cable News Network, usually referred to by its Initialism CNN, is a major English language Television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner
  19. ^ "Since that mention in the 2006, investment in switch grass has exploded, thanks in large part, experts say, to the president's speech. Venture capitalists have poured over $100 million dollars into private companies that are exploring the technology necessary to convert switch grass into fuel, and large, publicly-owned companies are also directing their research dollars into bio fuels. "Jessica Yellin, Katie Hinman, Nitya Venkataraman (2007-01-23). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 393 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I proclaims his nine year old son Honorius co-emperor What Happened to Bush Call for Switchgrass?. ABC News. This article is about the American news organization See also ABC News (disambiguation ABC News is a division of American
  20. ^ Switchgrass: Native American Powerhouse?. Renewable Energy Resources. Retrieved on 2007-01-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France.
  21. ^ Biomass Energy: Growing Crops For Fuel. Texas State Energy Conservation Office. Retrieved on 2007-01-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France.
  22. ^ Ethanol And Biodiesel From Crops Not Worth The Energy. ScienceDaily. Retrieved on 2007-01-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France.
  23. ^ Switch Grass: Alternative Energy Source?. NPR. Retrieved on 2007-01-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France.
  24. ^ a b c Samson, R. (2007). Switchgrass Production in Ontario: A Management Guide (PDF). Resource Efficient Agricultural Production (REAP) - Canada. Retrieved on 2008-05-24. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned
  25. ^ http://www.farmanddairy.com/news/oklahoma-to-plant-largest-stand-of-switchgrass-ever-for-fuel-research/
  26. ^ Lee, S. T. ; Stegelmeier, B. L. ; Gardner, D. R. ; Vogel, K. P. (2001). "The isolation and identification of steroidal sapogenins in switchgrass.". J Nat Toxins 10 (4): 273-81.  
  27. ^ Johnson, A. L. ; Divers, T. J. ; Freckleton, M. L. ; McKenzie, H. C. ; Mitchell, E. ; Cullen, J. M. ; McDonough, S. P. (2006). "Fall Panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum) Hepatotoxicosis in Horses and Sheep". Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 20 (6): 1414-1421.  
  28. ^ Stegelmeier, B. L. ; Elmore, S. A. ; Lee, S. T. ; James, L. F. ; Gardner, D. R. ; Panter, K. E. ; Ralphs, M. H. ; Pfister, J. A. (2007). "Switchgrass (panicum Virgatum) Toxicity In Rodents, Sheep, Goats And Horses". Poisonous Plant Global Research and Solutions 19: 113-117.  
  29. ^ Ball, D. M. ; Hoveland, C. S. , and Lacefield, G. D. (2006). "Table 28. Guidelines for rotational stocking of selected forage crops", Forage Crop Pocket Guide. International Plant Nutrition Institute.  
  30. ^ Ball, D. M. ; Hoveland, C. S. , and Lacefield, G. D. (2006). "Table 33b. Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) and Relative Feed Value (RFV) Ranges for Various Forage Crops", Forage Crop Pocket Guide. International Plant Nutrition Institute.  
  31. ^ Wolf, D. D. ; Fiske, D. A. (1995). "Planting and managing switchgrass for forage, wildlife, and conservation" (PDF). Virginia Cooperative Extension Publication: 418-013.  
  32. ^ Bransby, David (2005). Switchgrass Profile. Bioenergy Feedstock Information Network (BFIN), Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Oak Ridge National Laboratory ( ORNL) is a multiprogram science and technology National laboratory managed for the United States Department of Energy by Retrieved on 2008-05-24. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned

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