Palynology is the science that studies contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen, spores, dinoflagellate cysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans and scolecodonts, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and kerogen found in sedimentary rocks and sediments. This article is about the tree For other uses of the term "pine" see Pine (disambiguation. Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Palynomorph is the geological term used to describe a particle of a size between five and 500 micrometres found in rock deposits ( Sedimentary rocks and composed of Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions The dinoflagellates are a large group of Flagellate Protists Most are marine Plankton, but A cyst is a closed sac having a distinct membrane and Division on the nearby tissue. Acritarchs are small organic Fossils present from approximately to the present Chitinozoa (singular chitinozoan plural chitinozoans are a Taxon of flask -shaped organic walled marine Microfossils produced A scolecodont is the jaw of a polychaete annelid, a common type of Fossil -producing Segmented worm useful in Invertebrate Kerogen is a mixture of organic Chemical compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter in Sedimentary rocks It is insoluble in normal organic Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock) Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of Palynology does not include diatoms, foraminiferans or other organisms with silicaceous or calcareous exoskeletons. Diatoms ( Greek: (dia = "through" + (temnein = "to cut" i The Foraminifera, ("Hole Bearers" or forams for short are a large group of Amoeboid Protists with reticulating Pseudopods fine Calcareous refers to a Sediment, Sedimentary rock, or Soil type which is formed from or contains a high proportion of Calcium carbonate in the An exoskeleton is an external Skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body in contrast to the internal Endoskeleton of for example a Human.

Palynology is an interdisciplinary science and is a branch of earth science (geology or geological science) and biological science (biology), particularly plant science (botany). Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany which studies fossil palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene. Stratigraphy, a branch of Geology, studies rock layers and layering ( stratification) Micropaleontology (also sometimes spelled as micropalaeontology) is that branch of Paleontology which studies microfossils Paleobotany, also spelled as palaeobotany (from the Greek words paleon = old and " Botany " study of plants is the branch of FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Precambrian ( Pre-Cambrian) is an informal name for the supereon comprising the eons of the Geologic timescale that came before the current The Holocene is a Geological epoch which began approximately 10000 years ago (about 8000 BC

Contents 1 A History of Palynology 1.1 Early History 1.2 Modern Palynology 2 Methods of study 2.1 Chemical Preparation 2.2 Analysis 3 Applications 4 References 5 External links

A History of Palynology

Early History

The earliest reported observations of pollen under a microscope are likely to have been in the 1640s by the English botanist Nehemiah Grew^[1] who described pollen, the stamen and successfully predicted that pollen was required for successful reproduction in plants. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Nehemiah Grew (September 1641 - March 25, 1712) was an English Vegetable anatomist and Physiologist. As microscopes began to improve further studies included work by Robert Kidston and P. Robert Kidston FRS ( 29 June 1852 - 13 July 1924) was a Scottish Palaeobotanist. Reinsch examined the presence of spores in coal and compared them to modern spores^[2]. The early pioneers also included Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (radiolarians and diatoms), Gideon Mantell (desmids) and Henry Hopley White (dinoflagellates). Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg ( April 19, 1795 &ndash June 27, 1876) German naturalist, Zoologist, Comparative Radiolarians (also radiolaria) are Amoeboid Protozoa that produce intricate Mineral Skeletons typically with a central capsule Diatoms ( Greek: (dia = "through" + (temnein = "to cut" i Gideon Algernon Mantell ( February 3, 1790 &ndash November 10 1852) was an English Obstetrician, Geologist Desmids are an order ( Desmidiales) of Green algae comprising around 40 genera and 5000 to 6000 Species, found mostly but not exclusively The dinoflagellates are a large group of Flagellate Protists Most are marine Plankton, but

Modern Palynology

The earliest quantitative analysis of pollen was published by Lennart von Post who laid out the foundations of modern pollen analysis in his Kristiania lecture of 1916^[3] Pollen analysis was initially confined to Nordic countries because many early publications were in Nordic languages. Ernst Jakob Lennart von Post ( June 16 1884 - January 11 1951) was a Swedish Naturalist & Geologist. (called Christiania from 1624 to 1878 and Kristiania from 1878 to 1924 is the Capital and largest city of Norway. ^[4] This isolation ended with the publication of Gunnar Erdtman's thesis of 1921 when pollen analysis became widespread throughout Europe and North America for use in studies of Quaternary vegetation and climate change^[3]. Overview The term Quaternary ("fourth" was proposed by Giovanni Arduino in 1759 for alluvial deposits in the Po river valley in northern

The term palynology was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish geologist Antevs, in the pages of the Pollen Analysis Circular (one of the first journals devoted to pollen analysis, produced by Paul Sears in North America). Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A geologist is a contributor to the Science of Geology, studying the physical structure and processes of the Earth and planets of the solar system The first issue of the Pollen Analysis Circular was dated May 5 1943 and published by Paul B Paul Bigelow Sears ( December 17, 1891 - April 30, 1990) was an American Ecologist and writer Hyde and Williams chose palynology on the basis of the Greek words paluno meaning 'to sprinkle' and pale meaning 'dust' (and thus similar to the Latin word pollen). The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[5]

Methods of study

Palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic-walled microfossils between 5 and 500 micrometres in size. Micropaleontology (also sometimes spelled as micropalaeontology) is that branch of Paleontology which studies microfossils A micrometre ( American spelling: micrometer; symbol µm) is one millionth of a Metre, or equivalently one thousandth of a Millimetre They are extracted from rocks and sediment cores both physically, by wet sieving, often after ultrasonic treatment, and chemically, by using chemical digestion to remove the non-organic fraction. A pollen core is a Core sample of a medium containing a stratigraphic sequence of Pollen. A sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the Particle size distribution of a granular material

Chemical Preparation

Chemical digestion follows a number of steps. Initially the only chemical treatment used by researchers was treatment with KOH to remove humic substances; defloculation was accomplished through surface treatment or ultra-sonic treatment, although sonification may cause the pollen exine to rupture. Potassium hydroxide is the Inorganic compound with the formula K[[hydroxide OH]] Humic acid is one of the major components of humic substances which are dark brown and major constituents of soil organic matter Humus that contributes to Soil chemical ^[4] The use of hydrofluoric acid (HF) to digest silicate minerals was introduced by Assarson and Granlund in 1924, greatly reducing the amount of time required to scan slides for palynomorphs. Hydrofluoric acid is a Solution of Hydrogen fluoride in Water. For the Artificial intelligence Androids of the 1990s Science fiction series Space Above and Beyond, see Silicate (AI A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific ^[6] Palynological studies using peats presented a particular challenge because of the presence of well preserved organic material including fine rootlets, moss leaflets and organic litter. This was the last major challenge in the chemical preparation of materials for palynological study. Acetolysis was developed by Gunnar Erdtman and his brother to remove these fine cellulose materials by dissolving them. Solvolysis is a special type of Nucleophilic substitution or elimination where the Nucleophile is a Solvent molecule ^[7]. In acetolysis the material is treated with acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid, dissolving cellulistic materials and providing better visibility for palynomorphs. Acetic anhydride is the Chemical compound with the formula (CH3CO2O Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4

Some steps of the chemical treatments require special care for safety reason, in particular the use of HF which diffuses very fast through the skin and could cause severe chemical burns.

Other treatment include kerosene flotation for chitinous materials. Chitin ( C 8 H 13 O 5 N)n (ˈkaɪtən is a long-chain Polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine

Analysis

Once samples have been prepared chemically, samples are mounted on microscope slides using silicon oil, glycerol or glycerol-jelly and examined using light microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples or objects

Researchers will often study either modern samples from a number of unique sites within a given area, or samples from a single site with a record through time, such as samples obtained from peat or lake sediments. Peat is an accumulation of partially Decayed Vegetation matter. More recent studies have used the modern analog technique in which paleo-samples are compared to modern samples for which the parent vegetation is known^[8]

When the slides are observed under a microscope the researcher will count the number of grains from each pollen taxon. This record is then used to produce a pollen diagram. This data can be used to detect anthropogenic effects such as logging^[9], traditional patterns of land use^[10] or long term changes in regional climate^[11]

Palynology can be applied to problems in many fields including geology, botany, paleontology, archaeology, pedology (soil study), and geography. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena

Applications

Palynology is used for a diverse range of applications, related to many scientific disciplines:

• Biostratigraphy and geochronology. Biostratigraphy is the branch of Stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and assigning relative ages of rock strata by using the Fossil assemblages contained In the Natural sciences under the umbrella of Natural history, Geochronology is the Science of determining the absolute age of rocks, Fossils Geologists use palynological studies in biostratigraphy to correlate strata and determine the relative age of a given bed, horizon, formation or stratigraphical sequence. In Geology and related fields a stratum (plural strata) is a layer of rock or Soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguishes Stratigraphy, a branch of Geology, studies rock layers and layering ( stratification)
• Palaeoecology and climate change. Paleoecology uses data from Fossils and subfossils to reconstruct the Ecosystems of the past Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Palynology can be used to reconstruct past vegetation (land plants) and marine and freshwater phytoplankton communities, and so infer past environmental (palaeoenvironmental) and palaeoclimatic conditions. Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. Freshwater is a word that refers to bodies of water such as Ponds lakes rivers and streams containing low concentrations of dissolved Salts and other Total dissolved Phytoplankton are the Autotrophic component of the Plankton community See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Paleoclimatology (also Palaeoclimatology) is the study of Climate change taken on the scale of the entire History of Earth.
• Organic palynofacies studies, which examine the preservation of the particulate organic matter and palynomorphs provides information on the depositional environment of sediments and depositional palaeoenvironments of sedimentary rocks. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. Palynofacies studies examine the preservation of particulate Organic matter and Palynomorphs to provide information on the depositional environment of sediments Palynomorph is the geological term used to describe a particle of a size between five and 500 micrometres found in rock deposits ( Sedimentary rocks and composed of Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock)
• Geothermal alteration studies examine the colour of palynomorphs extracted from rocks to give the thermal alteration and maturation of sedimentary sequences, which provides estimates of maximum palaeotemperatures. Palynomorph is the geological term used to describe a particle of a size between five and 500 micrometres found in rock deposits ( Sedimentary rocks and composed of In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon. Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock)
• Limnology studies. Limnology (from Greek Λίμνη limne, "lake" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the division of Hydrology that studies inland Freshwater palynomorphs and animal and plant fragments, including the prasinophytes and desmids (green algae) can be used to study past lake levels and long term climate change. Desmids are an order ( Desmidiales) of Green algae comprising around 40 genera and 5000 to 6000 Species, found mostly but not exclusively The green algae (singular green alga) are the large group of Algae from which the Embryophytes (higher plants emerged Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences
• Taxonomy and evolutionary studies. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008
• Forensic palynology- the study of pollen and other palynomorphs for evidence at a crime scene. Forensic palynology is the study of Pollen and powdered Minerals their identification and where and when they occur to ascertain that a body or other object was Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Palynomorph is the geological term used to describe a particle of a size between five and 500 micrometres found in rock deposits ( Sedimentary rocks and composed of
• Allergy studies. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. Studies of the geographic distribution and seasonal production of pollen, can help sufferers of allergies such as hay fever. Hay Fever is a comic play written by Noel Coward in 1924 and first produced in 1925 with Marie Tempest as the first Judith Bliss
• Melissopalynology - the study of pollen and spores found in honey. Melissopalynology is the study of Honey. By extension it also includes the study of any Pollen contained in honey as well as the pollen's source
• Archaeological Palynology examines human uses of plants in the past. This can help determine seasonality of site occupation, presence or absence of agricultural practices or products and plant-related activity areas within an archaeological context. Bonfire Shelter is one such example of this application. Bonfire Shelter is an Archaeological site located in a southwest Texas rock shelter

Because the distribution of acritarchs, chitinozoans, dinoflagellate cysts, pollen and spores provides evidence of stratigraphical correlation through biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, one common and lucrative application of palynology is in oil and gas exploration. Acritarchs are small organic Fossils present from approximately to the present Chitinozoa (singular chitinozoan plural chitinozoans are a Taxon of flask -shaped organic walled marine Microfossils produced The dinoflagellates are a large group of Flagellate Protists Most are marine Plankton, but Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions Stratigraphy, a branch of Geology, studies rock layers and layering ( stratification) Biostratigraphy is the branch of Stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and assigning relative ages of rock strata by using the Fossil assemblages contained Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane,

Palynology also allows scientists to infer the climatic conditions from the vegetation present in an area thousands or millions of years ago. The geologic time scale is a chronologic schema (or idealized Model) relating Stratigraphy to time that is used by Geologists and other This is a fundamental part of research into climate change. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences

References

• Moore, P. D. , et al. (1991), Pollen Analysis (Second Edition). Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 0-632-02176-4
• Traverse, A. (1988), Paleopalynology. Unwin Hyman ISBN 0-04-561001-0
• Roberts, N. (1998), The Holocene an environmental history, Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-18638-7

External links

• International Federation of Palynological Societies
• American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists, Inc. (AASP)
• Centre for Palynology, University of Sheffield, UK
• Palynology Laboratory, French Institute of Pondicherry, India
• The Palynology Unit, Kew Gardens, UK
• PalDat, palynological database hosted by the University of Vienna, Austria
• The Micropalaeontological Society
• The American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists (AASP)
• Commission Internationale de Microflore du Paléozoique (CIMP), international commission for Palaeozoic palynology.
• CIMP Subcommission on Acritarchs
• CIMP Chitinozoan Subcommission
• Linnean Society Palynology Specialist Group (LSPSG)
• Canadian Association of Palynologists
• Pollen and Spore Identification Literature

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