Citizendia

Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon
Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon

The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language. History Origin of the school The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or 'doctrine of analysis' grouping which was a continuation Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Pali ( ISO 15919 / ALA-LC: Pāḷi is a Middle Indo-Aryan language or Prakrit of India. [1] The Canon was written down from oral tradition at the occasion of the Fourth Buddhist Council (in the usual Theravada numbering), 1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka[2] on ola (palm) leaves. Two councils frequently called Fourth Buddhist Council were held The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island [3] Passed down in writing and to other Theravadin countries, this originally largely North Indian[4] Canon is the most complete surviving early Buddhist canon and one of the first to be written down. [5]

The Canon was not printed until the nineteenth century, and is now also available in electronic form. [6]

The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the Tipitaka (Tipiṭaka; three baskets). The three pitakas are as follows. [7]

  1. Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nuns
  2. Sutta Pitaka, discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples
  3. Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics etc. The Vinaya Piṭaka is a Buddhist Scripture, one of the three parts that make up the Tripitaka. The Sutta Pitaka (suttapiṭaka or Suttanta Pitaka cf Sanskrit सूत्र पिटक Sutra Pitaka) is the second of the three divisions of the Tipitaka or The Abhidhamma Pitaka (abhidhammapiṭaka is the last of the three Pitakas that is baskets constituting the Pali Canon, the Scriptures of Theravāda Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science

Contents

The Canon in the tradition

Theravada

  

Countries

 Nepal • Sri Lanka
Cambodia • Laos
Burma • Thailand		 

Texts

 

Pali Canon
Commentaries
Subcommentaries

 

History

 

Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Early schools • Sthavira
Asoka • Third Council
Vibhajjavada
Mahinda • Sanghamitta
Dipavamsa • Mahavamsa
Buddhaghosa

 

Doctrine

 

Saṃsāra • Nibbāṇa
Middle Way
Noble Eightfold Path
Four Noble Truths
Enlightenment Stages
Precepts • 3 Jewels

 
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The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples. History Origin of the school The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or 'doctrine of analysis' grouping which was a continuation Buddha was born in Shakya kingdom which lies in Rupandehi district Lumbini zone of Nepal General Buddhism in Sri Lanka is primarily of the Theravada school and constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the populationAccording to traditional History See also History of Buddhism in Cambodia Unconfirmed Singhalese sources assert that missionaries of King Asohka introduced Buddhism into Buddhism is the primary religion of Laos. The Buddhism practiced in Laos is of the Theravada tradition History The history of Buddhism in Burmaextends nearly a millennium Buddhism in Thailand is largely of the Theravada school Nearly 95% of Thailand 's population is Buddhist of the Theravada school though Buddhism Pali literature is concerned mainly with Theravada Buddhism, of which Pali is the traditional language Atthakatha ( Pali for explanation commentary refers to Pali-language Theravadin Buddhist commentaries to the canonical Theravadin Tipitaka. The subcommentaries (tika ṭīkā are commentaries on the commentaries on the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism The term pre-sectarian Buddhism is used by some scholars to refer to the Buddhism that existed before the various subsects of Buddhism came into being The Early Buddhist schools are those schools into which according to most scholars the Buddhist monastic Sangha initially split due originally to differences in Sthaviravāda ( Sanskrit; Chinese 上座部 literally means "Teaching Of The Elders" Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi The Third Buddhist council was convened in about 250 BCE at Asokarama in Patiliputta, supposedly under the patronage of Emperor Asoka. Vibhajjavāda is an umbrella classification for Buddhist denominations that promote analysis as a primary tool for developing 'insight' (Sanskrit Prajñā Mahinda ( Sanskrit: महिन्द्र Mahindra) (born 3rd century BCE in Magadha, now in Bihar, India) was a Buddhist See also Ashoka Bhikkhuni Sri Maha Bodhi The Dipavamsa, or "Deepavamsa" (ie Chronicle of the Island in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The Mahavamsa, ("Great Chronicle " is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa was a 5th century Indian Theravadin Buddhist commentator and scholar In sramanic philosophy Nirvana (निर्वाण| Nirvāṇa; निब्बान Nibbāna; Prakrit: णिव्वाण In general the Middle Way or Middle Path ( madhyamā-pratipad; ṭṭipadā) is the Buddhist practice of non-extremism Background Why the Buddha is said to have taught in this way is illuminated by the social context of the time in which he lived The four stages of Enlightenment in Buddhism are the four degrees of approach to full enlightenment as an Arahant which a person can attain in this life The Three Jewels, also called the Three Treasures, the Three Refuges, or the Triple Gem, are the three things that Buddhists take refuge History Origin of the school The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or 'doctrine of analysis' grouping which was a continuation [8]

The traditional Theravadin (Mahaviharin) interpretation of the Pali Canon is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fourth or fifth century CE) and later monks, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost. The Mahavihara ( Pali for "Great Monastery" was for several centuries the center of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Atthakatha ( Pali for explanation commentary refers to Pali-language Theravadin Buddhist commentaries to the canonical Theravadin Tipitaka. Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa was a 5th century Indian Theravadin Buddhist commentator and scholar Subcommentaries have been written afterwards, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The subcommentaries (tika ṭīkā are commentaries on the commentaries on the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism The traditional Theravadin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga. Summary It is composed of four parts which discuss 1 Sila (discipline 2 Samadhi (meditative concentration 3 The land of wisdom [9]

An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:[10] the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. In sramanic philosophy Nirvana (निर्वाण| Nirvāṇa; निब्बान Nibbāna; Prakrit: णिव्वाण In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj [11]

Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta. Uses In the Pali literature these short verses are recommended by the Buddha as providing protection from certain afflictions Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). The Dhammapada ( Pāli; Prakrit: Dhamapada; Sanskrit Dharmapada; sometimes translated into English as Path of the A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learnt the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering). The Sixth Buddhist Council (Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana as it styled itself was a general council of Theravada Buddhism held in Kaba Aye in Yangon (Rangoon [12] Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language. [13]

The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematical: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very much more widely used; the details varied from place to place. [14] Dr Rupert Gethin says that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures. Dr Rupert Mark Lovell Gethin ( b 1957 Edinburgh is a Lecturer in Indian Religions in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies and co-director of the Centre for Buddhist [15]

Origins

It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon originated from the Buddha and his immediate disciples. According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. According to late commentarial accounts King Ajatashatru (Sanskrit अजातशत्रु sponsored the First Buddhist council. In Buddhism, parinirvana ( Sanskrit: परिनिर्वाण parinirvāṇa; Pali: परिनिब्बाण parinibbāṇa It was recited orally from the 5th century BC to the first century BC, when it was written down. The tradition holds that only a few later additions were made.

Attribution according to scholars

Various views concerning the attribution of the Pali Canon are current amongst scholars:

  1. parts of it can be attributed to the Buddha.
  2. very little can be attributed to the Buddha
  3. parts can be attributed to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism. The term pre-sectarian Buddhism is used by some scholars to refer to the Buddhism that existed before the various subsects of Buddhism came into being
  4. it has an unknown nucleus
  5. not until the fifth to sixth centuries CE can we know anything definite about the contents of the Pali Canon.

1. Certain parts can be attributed to the Buddha

Various scholars have voiced that some of the contents of the Pali Canon (and its main teachings) can be attributed to Gautama Buddha. Dr Richard Gombrich[16] thinks that the teachings (of the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas) probably go back to the Buddha individually[17]. Some scholars argue that the teachings are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single genius, i. e. the Buddha himself, not a committee of followers after his death[18][19].

J. W. de Jong has stated that parts of the Pali Canon could very well have been proclaimed by the Buddha, and subsequently transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas[20]. A. Wynne has said that the Pali Canon includes texts which go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words[21].

A. K. Warder has stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers[22].

2. Very little can be attributed to the Buddha

Some scholars say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha[23] Some of these argue that[24]

3. Attribution to Pre-sectarian Buddhism

Much of the Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of Pre-sectarian Buddhism. The term pre-sectarian Buddhism is used by some scholars to refer to the Buddhism that existed before the various subsects of Buddhism came into being This is the period before the early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BCE. The Early Buddhist schools are those schools into which according to most scholars the Buddhist monastic Sangha initially split due originally to differences in

4. Unknown nucleus

Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus[25]. Arguments given for an agnostic attitude include that the evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from (long) after his death.

Some scholars have said that the application of text-critical methods derived from Biblical criticism is invalidated by the fact that the Bible was a written text while the Pali Canon was oral[26]. This article is about the academic treatment of the bible as a historical document

Some scholars have stated that it would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism[27].

5. Only from much later are its contents definitely definable

Dr Gregory Schopen[28], argues[29] that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. This position did not attract much support, and was criticized by A. Wynne. [30]

The Earliest books of the Pali Canon

Different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works,[31] the Vinaya (excluding the Parivara[32]) and the first four nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka[33], and perhaps also some short verse works [34] such as the Suttanipata. The Sutta Nipata is a Buddhist scripture a Sutta collection in the Khuddaka Nikaya, part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism [35]However, some scholars, paricularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipata is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana. [36]. However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching[37].

Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions. [38] On the other hand, some scholars have claimed[39] that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.

According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (Vaṭṭagāmiṇi) (1st century B. C. E. ) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Two councils frequently called Fourth Buddhist Council were held Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this,[40] though Schopen questions this.

Texts and translations

The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,[41] and there is not very much from before the eighteenth. Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. [42]

The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes. [43] The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West.

No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions. The Pali Text Society was founded in 1881 by TW Rhys Davids "to foster and promote the study of Pali texts" Lists and numbering of Buddhist councils vary between and even within schools [46]

Translation: Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895- , in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory. [47] Another former President said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly. [48] The style of many translations from the Canon has been criticized[49] as "Buddhist Hybrid English", a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit ( BHS) is a modern linguistic category applied to the language used in a class of Indian Buddhist texts such as the Perfection He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the initiate, written by and for Buddhologists". [50]

Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies. This list covers English-language anthologies essentially confined to the Pali Canon and including material from at least two pitakas

Contents of the Canon

Pali Canon

  Vinaya Pitaka  
  
                                
Sutta-
vibhanga		KhandhakaPari-
vara
        
  
  Sutta Pitaka  
  
                                            
Digha
Nikaya		Majjhima
Nikaya		Samyutta
Nikaya
           
  
  
                                                        
Anguttara
Nikaya		Khuddaka
Nikaya
              
  
  Abhidhamma Pitaka  
  
                                                
Dhs.Vbh.Dhk.
Pug.		Kvu.YamakaPatthana
            
  
     
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As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas. The Vinaya Piṭaka is a Buddhist Scripture, one of the three parts that make up the Tripitaka. Suttavibhanga (-vibhaṅga Pali for "rule analysis" is the first book of the Theravadin Vinaya Pitaka. Outline The Mahavagga has 10 chapters the first chapter is simply called the great chapter it starts with a narrative beginning immediately after the Buddha's Parivara ( Pali for "accessory" is the third and last book of the Theravadin Vinaya Pitaka. The Sutta Pitaka (suttapiṭaka or Suttanta Pitaka cf Sanskrit सूत्र पिटक Sutra Pitaka) is the second of the three divisions of the Tipitaka or The Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya "Collection of Long Discourses" is a Buddhist scripture the first of the five Nikayas or collections The Majjhima Nikaya (-nikāya "Collection of Middle-length Discourses" is a Buddhist scripture the second of the five Nikayas or collections in the The Samyutta Nikaya (Saṃyutta Nikāya SN, "Connected Discourses" or "Kindred Sayings" is a Buddhist scripture the third of the five Nikayas The Anguttara Nikaya (aṅguttaranikāya "Gradual Collection" or "Numerical Discourses" is a Buddhist scripture the fourth of the five Nikayas or The Khuddaka Nikaya (-nikāya "Minor Collection" is the last of the five Nikayas or collections in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three The Abhidhamma Pitaka (abhidhammapiṭaka is the last of the three Pitakas that is baskets constituting the Pali Canon, the Scriptures of Theravāda The Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -ī is a Buddhist scripture part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism where it is included in the Abhidhamma Pitaka The Vibhanga (vibhaṅga is a Buddhist Scripture part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism where it is included in the Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Dhatukatha (dhātukathā is a Buddhist scripture part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism where it is included in the Abhidhamma Pitaka The Puggalapannatti (-ññ- is a Buddhist scripture part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism where it is included in the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Kathāvatthu ( Pāli) (abbrev Kv Kvu literally "Points of Controversy" is a Buddhist scripture one of the seven books in the Theravada Abhidhamma For "yamaka" as a misspelling of "yarmulke" an item of Jewish headgear see Kippah. The Patthana (paṭṭhāna is a Buddhist scripture part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism where it is included in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Details are given below. The Vinaya Piṭaka is a Buddhist Scripture, one of the three parts that make up the Tripitaka. The Sutta Pitaka (suttapiṭaka or Suttanta Pitaka cf Sanskrit सूत्र पिटक Sutra Pitaka) is the second of the three divisions of the Tipitaka or The Abhidhamma Pitaka (abhidhammapiṭaka is the last of the three Pitakas that is baskets constituting the Pali Canon, the Scriptures of Theravāda For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature. [51]

Vinaya Pitaka

The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The Vinaya Piṭaka is a Buddhist Scripture, one of the three parts that make up the Tripitaka. The Vinaya Piṭaka is a Buddhist Scripture, one of the three parts that make up the Tripitaka. This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective A Nun is a Woman who has taken special vows committing her to a religious life The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts.

Sutta Pitaka

The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka (suttapiṭaka or Suttanta Pitaka cf Sanskrit सूत्र पिटक Sutra Pitaka) is the second of the three divisions of the Tipitaka or The Sutta Pitaka (suttapiṭaka or Suttanta Pitaka cf Sanskrit सूत्र पिटक Sutra Pitaka) is the second of the three divisions of the Tipitaka or The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas. Nikāya is a word of meaning 'collection' 'assemblage' 'class' or 'group' in both Pali and Sanskrit.

Khuddaka Nikaya

The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. The Khuddaka Nikaya (-nikāya "Minor Collection" is the last of the five Nikayas or collections in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three The "standard" list, given in most western sources,[56] contains the following.

However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical.

Paracanonical or semicanonical works

The following works are included in the Sixth Council edition of the Canon,[67] including the new transcript from Thailand. [68]

The first two of these, but not the third, are included in the Sinhalese (printed) edition. All are omitted from the Thai edition. Inclusion in printed editions is not the same as canonicity (cf. Apocrypha). Professor George Bond of Northwestern University says of the first of these books that some Theravadins regard it as quasi-canonical, others as canonical, especially in Burma. [69] About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical. [70] On the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not. [71]

Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon
Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon

Abhidhamma Pitaka

The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. The Abhidhamma Pitaka (abhidhammapiṭaka is the last of the three Pitakas that is baskets constituting the Pali Canon, the Scriptures of Theravāda The Abhidhamma Pitaka (abhidhammapiṭaka is the last of the three Pitakas that is baskets constituting the Pali Canon, the Scriptures of Theravāda One of the three divisions of the Tripitaka, or canon of Buddhist Scriptures. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

The traditional position is that the Abhidhamma is the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. The Patthana (paṭṭhāna is a Buddhist scripture part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism where it is included in the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey,[73] Gethin. [74] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions. [75]

Comparison with other Buddhist canons

The other two main canons in use at the present day are the Tibetan Kangyur and the Chinese Buddhist Canon. The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined list of sacred texts recognized by various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, made up of the Kangyur or Kanjur The Chinese Buddhist Canon ( Chinese character: 大藏經 Cantonese: Dai Zorng Ging Mandarin: Dà Zàng Jīng Korean: Dae Jang Kyung Japanese The former is in about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka and the Dhammapada (the latter confusingly called Udanavarga) and of parts of some other books. The standard modern edition of the latter is the Taisho published in Japan, which is in a hundred much larger volumes. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. It includes both canonical and non-canonical (including Chinese and Japanese) literature and its arrangement does not clearly distinguish the two. It includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the first four nikayas, the Dhammapada, the Itivuttaka and the Milindapanha and of parts of some other books. These Chinese and Tibetan versions are not usually translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but are recognizably the "same" works. On the other hand, the Chinese abhidharma books are different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka, though they follow a common methodology.

Looking at things from the other side, the bulk of the Chinese and Tibetan canons consists of Mahayana sutras and tantras, which, apart from a few tantras,[76] have no equivalent in the Pali Canon. Historicity and Background Place in the Canon Various Mahayana Sutras have been included in the Tibetan Canon and the Chinese Canon. Tantras (" Looms " or " Weavings " refers to numerous and varied scriptures pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions

Notes

  1. ^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 3
  2. ^ Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
  3. ^ A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn, page 307. American Asiatic Association, Asia Society, Asia: Journal of the American Asiatic Association, p724.
  4. ^ If the language of the Pāli canon is north Indian in origin, and without substantial Sinhalese additions, it is likely that the canon was composed somewhere in north India before its introduction to Sri Lanka How old is the Sutta Pitaka?, Alexander Wynne, St. Johns' College, 2003
  5. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 3.
  6. ^ Bechert & Gombrich, The World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 293
  7. ^ Gombrich, page 4
  8. ^ Gombrich, page 20
  9. ^ Gombrich, pages 153-4
  10. ^ Morgan, Path of the Buddha, Ronald Press, New York, 1956, pages v, 71
  11. ^ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, volume 28 (part 2), page 302
  12. ^ Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1975, page 266
  13. ^ Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edn, volume 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam/Oxford, 2006
  14. ^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XV, pages 103f
  15. ^ Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1998, page 43
  16. ^ Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society
  17. ^ I am saying that there was a person called the Buddha, that the preachings probably go back to him individually. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the . . that we can learn more about what he meant, and that he was saying some very precise things. source: http://www.ordinarymind.net/Interviews/interview_jan2003.htm
  18. ^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, pages 20f
  19. ^ While parts of the Pali Canon clearly originated after the time of the Buddha, much must derive from his teaching. - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p. 3
  20. ^ the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. J. W. De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25
  21. ^ If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words, How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. [www. ocbs. org/research/Wynne. pdf]
  22. ^ there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, inside flap.
  23. ^ Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, volume I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London,1990, page 5
  24. ^ see Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21, part 1, page 11 for some of this
  25. ^ an article in the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004), page 10
  26. ^ Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalawa Saddhatissa ed Dhammapala, Gombrich & Norman, University of Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka, 1984, pages 56, 67
  27. ^ It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism . . . the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. J. W. De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25
  28. ^ Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin
  29. ^ Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, page 24 (reprinted from Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik, volume 10 (1985))
  30. ^ How old is the Sutta Pitaka? - Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. The University of Hawaii, formally the University of Hawaii System and popularly known as UH, is a public co-educational college and university system that confers [www. ocbs. org/research/Wynne. pdf]
  31. ^ A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, Pali Text Society, page viii
  32. ^ L. S. Cousins in Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa, ed Dhammapala, Gombrich and Norman, University of Jayewardenepura, 1984, page 56
  33. ^ The World of Buddhism, ed Bechert and Gombrich, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; Gethin, pages 42f
  34. ^ Gethin, The Buddha's Path to Awakening, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1992
  35. ^ Cousins, loc. cit.
  36. ^ Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, Japan, 1980, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989, page 27
  37. ^ as the Buddha taught for 45 years, some signs of development in teachings may only reflect changes during this period. - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p. 3
  38. ^ Bechert and Gombrich; Warder, Introduction to Path of Discrimination, 1982, Pali Text Society, page xxix
  39. ^ Cousins, "Pali oral literature", in Buddhist Studies, ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon Press, London, 1982/3; Harvey, page 83; Gethin, page 48; The Guide, Pali Text Society, page xxvii
  40. ^ Harvey, page 3; Warder, Path of Discrimination, Pali Text Society, pages xxxixf; Gethin, Path, page 8
  41. ^ Hinüber, Handbook of Pali Literature, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5.
  42. ^ Pali Text Society Home Page
  43. ^ Günter Grönbold, Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1984, page 12; as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete
  44. ^ Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, PTS, page 382
  45. ^ Hamm in German Scholars on India, volume I, ed Cultural Department of the German Embassy in India, pub Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1973, translated from Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 1962
  46. ^ Cone, Dictionary of Pali, volume I, PTS, 2001
  47. ^ Memoirs of the Chuo Academic Research Institute, No. 23, Dec. 1994, page 12, reprinted in Norman, Collected Papers, volume VI, 1996, Pali Text Society, Bristol, page 80
  48. ^ Interview with professor Richard Gombrich for Ordinary Mind - An Australian Buddhist Review issue No 21
  49. ^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, Volume XXIX, page 102
  50. ^ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 4. 2 (1981)
  51. ^ Norman, Pali Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit.
  52. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, appendix
  53. ^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XV
  54. ^ Harvey, appendix
  55. ^ loc. cit.
  56. ^ Pali Text Society; Norman; Hinüber; Harvey, Appendix; Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, 1958, English tr, Oriental Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, 1988
  57. ^ Norman, page 58
  58. ^ Dhammapada, ed Sumangala, pub Humphrey Milford for the Pali Text Society, London, 1914, page v
  59. ^ Mendelson, appendix
  60. ^ Harvey, appendix
  61. ^ op. cit.
  62. ^ This can be verified by inspecting the table of contents of the VRI transcription.
  63. ^ Introduction to Pali, 1963,PaliText Society, Bristol, page 383
  64. ^ Harvey, appendix
  65. ^ Path, pages 311f
  66. ^ JPTS, volume XX, pages 1-42
  67. ^ The Guide, Pali Text Society, 1962, page xii; Hinüber
  68. ^ ([1]).
  69. ^ Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, ed Potter, volume VII, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1996
  70. ^ JPTS, volume XXVIII, pages 61f
  71. ^ Rewata Dhamma, The Buddha and His Disciples, Dhamma-Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 89
  72. ^ Harvey, page 83
  73. ^ loc. cit.
  74. ^ Foundations, page 44
  75. ^ "Pali oral literature", page 7
  76. ^ Most notably, a version of the Atanatiya Sutta (from the Digha Nikaya) is included in the tantra (Mikkyo, rgyud) divisions of the Taisho and of the Cone, Derge, Lhasa, Lithang, Narthang and Peking (Qianlong) editions of the Kangyur: Skilling, Mahasutras, volume I, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Bristol, pages 84n, 553ff, 617ff.

See also

History of Literature
Bronze Age literature:
Sumerian
Egyptian
Assyro-Babylonian
Classical literatures:
Chinese
Greek
Latin
Pahlavi
Pali
Sanskrit
Syriac
Tamil
Medieval literature
Anglo-Saxon
Arabic
Byzantine
French
German
Hebrew
Indian
Irish
Italian
Japanese
Kannada
Nepal Bhasa
Norse
Persian
Welsh
Early Modern literature
Renaissance literature
Baroque literature
Modern literature
18th century
19th century
20th century
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External links

English translations

Other

Further reading

In addition to Ko Lay's book above, two other books are devoted to detailed accounts of the Canon:

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