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This article is about the writing system. For other uses, see Pahlavi (disambiguation).
Pahlavi script
Type Alternative abjad→abugida, logographic and ideographic
Spoken languages Middle Iranian languages
Time period 3rd c. BCE to 10th c. CE (hypothetical)
2nd c. BCE to 17th c. CE (attested)
Parent systems Phoenician alphabet
 → Aramaic alphabet
  → Pahlavi script
Child systems Avestan
ISO 15924 Phli (Inscriptional Pahlavi)
Phlp (Psalter Pahlavi)
Phlv (Book Pahlavi)
Prti (Inscriptional Parthian)
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. An Abjad is a type of Writing system in which each symbol stands for a Consonant; the reader must supply the appropriate Vowel. An abugida ( from Ge‘ez አቡጊዳ ’äbugida or Amharic አቡጊዳ ’abugida is a segmental Writing system which A logogram, or logograph, is a Grapheme which represents a word or a Morpheme (a meaningful unit of language An ideogram or ideograph (from Greek idea "idea" + grafo "to write" is a Graphic symbol that represents an Idea The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC The 2nd century BC started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar In Linguistics, attested languages are languages for which evidence has survived to the present day either in the form of Inscriptions or Literature, or The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC The Aramaic alphabet is an Abjad, a Consonantal Alphabet, used for writing Aramaic. The Avestan alphabet is a writing system developed during the Sassanid era (226-651 in Iran to render the Avestan language. ISO 15924, Codes for the representation of names of scripts, defines two sets of codes for a number of Writing systems (scripts In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's
History of the alphabet

Middle Bronze Age 19 c. The history of the Alphabet begins in Ancient Egypt, more than a millennium into the History of writing. The Middle Bronze Age alphabets are two similar Undeciphered scripts dated to be from the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 BCE and believed to be ancestral BCE

  • Ugaritic 15 c. The Ugaritic alphabet is a Cuneiform Abjad (alphabet without vowels used from around 1500 BCE for the Ugaritic language, an extinct BCE
  • Phoenician 14–11 c. The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC BCE
    • Paleo-Hebrew 10 c. The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, also know as Ktav Ivri, is an offshoot of the ancient Semitic alphabet (see the akin Phoenician alphabet) BCE
      • Samaritan 6 c. The Samaritan alphabet is a direct descendant of the paleo-Hebrew variety of the Phoenician alphabet. BCE
    • Aramaic 8 c. The Aramaic alphabet is an Abjad, a Consonantal Alphabet, used for writing Aramaic. BCE
      • Brāhmī & Indic 6 c. Brāhmī script refers to the oldest members of the Brahmic family of alphabets. The Brahmic family is a family of syllabaries (writing systems used in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Central Asia and East Asia, BCE
        • Tibetan 7 c. The Tibetan script is an Abugida of Indic origin used to write the Tibetan language as well as the Dzongkha language, Ladakhi language CE
        • Khmer/Javanese 9 c. The Khmer script (អក្ខរក្រមខេមរភាសា âkkhârâkrâm khémârâ phéasa informally aksar Khmer អក្សរខ្មែរ is used to write the The Javanese script, natively known as Carakan ( Tjarakan) is the script originally used to write Javanese. CE
      • Hebrew 3 c. The Hebrew alphabet (אָלֶף-בֵּית עִבְרִי alephbet ’ivri) consists of 22 letters used for writing the Hebrew language. BCE
      • Syriac 2 c. The Syriac alphabet is a Writing system used to write the Syriac language from around the 2nd century BC. BCE
        • Arabic 4 c. The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. CE
      • Pahlavi 3 c. BCE
        • Avestan 4 c. The Avestan alphabet is a writing system developed during the Sassanid era (226-651 in Iran to render the Avestan language. CE
    • Greek 9 c. The Greek alphabet (Ελληνικό αλφάβητο is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early BCE
      • Etruscan 8 c. Old Italic refers to several now extinct Alphabet systems used on the Italian Peninsula in ancient times for various Indo-European (predominantly Italic BCE
      • Gothic 3 c. This article is about the 4th century alphabet of the Gothic bible CE
      • Armenian 405 CE
      • Glagolitic 862 CE
      • Cyrillic 10 c. The Armenian alphabet is an Alphabet that has been used to write the Armenian language since the year 405 or 406. The Glagolitic alphabet or Glagolitsa is the oldest known Slavic Alphabet. The Cyrillic alphabet (səˈrɪlɪk also called azbuka, from the old name of the first two letters is actually a family of Alphabets, subsets of which are used by CE
    • Paleohispanic 7 c. The Paleohispanic scripts are the writing systems created in the Iberian peninsula before the Latin alphabet became the dominant script BCE
  • Epigraphic South Arabian 9 c. The ancient South Arabian alphabet (also known as musnad المُسند branched from the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet in about the 9th century BC. BCE
    • Ge'ez 5–6 c. Ge'ez (gez ግዕዝ) also called Ethiopic, is an Abugida script that was originally developed to write Ge'ez, a Semitic language BCE
Meroitic 3 c. The Meroitic script is an Alphabetic script originally derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs used to write the Meroitic language of the Kingdom of Meroë / BCE
Ogham 4 c. Ogham (ogam ˈɔɣam Modern Irish or, English) is an Early Medieval Alphabet used primarily to represent the Old Irish language (and CE
Hangul 1443 CE
Canadian syllabics 1840 CE
Zhuyin 1913 CE
complete genealogy

Pahlavi or Pahlevi denotes a particular and exclusively written form of various Middle Iranian languages. Canadian Aboriginal syllabic writing', or simply syllabics, is a family of Abugidas {dubious}} used to write a number of Aboriginal Canadian Nearly all the segmental scripts (loosely " Alphabets " but see below for more precise terminology used around the globe appear to have derived from the The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. The essential characteristics of Pahlavi are[1]

Pahlavi compositions have been found for the dialects/ethnolects of Parthia, Parsa, Sogdiana, Scythia and Khotan. The Parthian language, also known as Arsacid Pahlavi, is a now-extinct ancient Northwestern Iranian language spoken in Parthia, a region of northeastern Dialects of Fars is a group of Southwestern and Northwestern Iranian dialects spoken in the Central Fars province The Sogdian language is a Middle Iranian language that was spoken in Sogdiana ( Zarafshan River Valley located in modern day Uzbekistan The Scythian languages form a North Eastern branch of the Iranian language family and comprise the distinctive languagesspoken by the Scythian ( Sarmatian [2] Independent of the variant for which the Pahlavi system was used, the written form of that language only qualifies as Pahlavi when it has the characteristics noted above.

Pahlavi is then an admixture of:

Pahlavi may thus be defined as a system of writing applied to (but not unique for) a specific language group, but with critical features alien to that language group. It has the characteristics of a distinct language, but is not one. It is an exclusively written system, but much Pahlavi literature remains essentially an oral literature committed to writing and so retains many of the characteristics of oral composition.

Contents

Etymology

The term Pahlavi is said[3] to be derived from the Parthian language word parthav or parthau, meaning Parthia, a region just east of the Caspian Sea, with the -i suffix denoting the language and people of that region. The Parthian language, also known as Arsacid Pahlavi, is a now-extinct ancient Northwestern Iranian language spoken in Parthia, a region of northeastern The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. If this etymology is correct, Parthav presumably became pahlaw through a semivowel glide rt (or in other cases rd) change to l, a common occurrence in language evolution (e. Semivowels — also known as glides or non-syllabic vowels —are Vowels that form Diphthongs with full syllabic vowels g. Arsacid sard became sal, zard→zal, vard→ gol, sardar→salar etc. ). The term has been traced back further[3] to Avestan perethu- "broad [as the earth]", also evident in Sanskrit prithvi- "earth" and "parthivi" "[lord] of the earth". Avestan is an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Avesta. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Common to all Indo-Iranian languages is a connotation of "mighty".

History

The earliest attested use of Pahlavi dates to the reign of Mithridates I (r. Mithridates I (B 195 BC? D 138 BC was the "Great King" of Parthia from ca 171–138 BCE). Events By place Greece Epirus joins Macedonia in the latter's fight against Rome. [4] The cellars of the treasury at Mithradatkird (near modern-day Nisa) reveal thousands of pottery shards with brief records; several ostraca that are fully dated bear references to members of the immediate family of the king. [5] Early Parthian coins also attest to the use Pahlavi. [3]

Such fragments, as also the rock inscriptions of Sassanid kings, which are dateable to the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, do not however qualify as a significant literary corpus. Although, in theory, Pahlavi could have been used to render any Middle Iranian language and hence may have been in use as early as 300 BCE, no manuscripts that can be dated to before the 6th century CE have yet been found. Thus, when used for the name of a literary genre, i. e. Pahlavi literature, the term refers to Middle Iranian texts dated near or after the fall of the Sassanid empire and (with exceptions) extending to about 900 CE, after which Iranian languages enter the "modern" stage. Middle Persian literature is Persian literature of the 1st millennium AD, especially of the Sassanid period The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire

The oldest surviving example of the Pahlavi literary genre is from fragments of the so-called "Pahlavi Psalter", a 6th or 7th century CE translation of a Syriac Psalter found at Bulayiq on the Silk Road, near Turfan in north-west China. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Turfan or Tulufan (تۇرپان|Turpan|Turpan Modern Chinese: 吐魯番, Pinyin: Tǔlǔfān is an Oasis city in the It is in a more archaic script than Book Pahlavi. [6]

In the present-day, "Pahlavi" is frequently identified with the prestige dialect of southwest Iran, formerly and properly called Pārsi, after Pars (Persia proper). A prestige dialect is the Dialect spoken by the most prestigious people in a Speech community which is large enough to sustain more than one dialect Dialects of Fars is a group of Southwestern and Northwestern Iranian dialects spoken in the Central Fars province This practice that can be dated to the period immediately following the Islamic conquest. [4]

Script

Inscriptionnal Pahlavi text from Shapur III at Taq-e Bostan, 4th century.
Inscriptionnal Pahlavi text from Shapur III at Taq-e Bostan, 4th century. Shapur III was the eleventh Sassanid King of Persia from 383 to 388 Taqwasân or Taq-e Bostan or Taq-i-Bustan ( Persian: طاق بستان, Kurdish: Taqwesan is a series of large rock relief from the era of As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini / Common era) was that Century

Pahlavi script is one of the two essential characteristics of the Pahlavi system (see above). Its origin and development occurred independently of the various Middle Iranian languages for which it was used. The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. Pahlavi script is derived from the Aramaic script as it was used under the Achaemenids, with modifications to support the greater consonantary of Iranian languages. The Aramaic alphabet is an Abjad, a Consonantal Alphabet, used for writing Aramaic. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Combined with the high incidence of ideograms, Pahlavi script is not necessarily phonetic, and when it is, it does not have only one transliterational symbol per sign. (For a review of the transliteration problems of Pahlavi, see Henning. [7])

Pahlavi script consisted of two widely used forms: Inscriptional Pahlavi and Book Pahlavi. A third form, Psalter Pahlavi is not widely attested.

Inscriptional Pahlavi

Inscriptional Pahlavi is the earliest attested form, and is evident in clay fragments that have been dated to the reign of Mithridates I (r. Mithridates I (B 195 BC? D 138 BC was the "Great King" of Parthia from ca 171–138 BCE). Events By place Greece Epirus joins Macedonia in the latter's fight against Rome. Other early evidence includes the Pahlavi inscriptions of Arsacid era coins and rock inscriptions of Sassanid kings and other notables such as Kartir. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Kartir Hangirpe (alternatively Karder or Kirdir) was a highly influential Zoroastrian high-priest of the late 3rd century CE and served as advisor to at

Psalter Pahlavi

Psalter Pahlavi derives its name from the so-called "Pahlavi Psalter", a 6th or 7th century translation of a Syriac book of psalms. The Pahlavi Psalter is the name given to a 12-page non-contiguous section of a Middle Persian translation of a Syriac book of psalms. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language This text, which was found at Bulayiq near Turfan in northwest China, is the earliest evidence of literary composition in Pahlavi, dating to the 6th or 7th century CE. Turfan or Tulufan (تۇرپان|Turpan|Turpan Modern Chinese: 吐魯番, Pinyin: Tǔlǔfān is an Oasis city in the [8] The extant manuscript dates no earlier than the mid-6th century since the translation reflects liturgical additions to the Syriac original by Mar Aba I, who was Patriarch of Babylon c. The Patriarch of Assyria, also called the Assyrian Patriarch, is the leader and head bishop of the Assyrian Church of the East, formerly based in 540 - 552. [9]

The script of the psalms has altogether 18 graphemes, 5 more than "Book Pahlavi" (see below). The only other surviving source of Psalter Pahlavi are the inscriptions on a bronze processional cross found at Herat, in present-day Afghanistan. area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Due to the dearth of comparable material, some words and phrases in both sources remain undeciphered.

Book Pahlavi

Book Pahlavi, which appears to have evolved after the fall of the Sassanid empire, is a smoother script in which letters often attached to form complicated ligatures. Book Pahlavi was the most common form of the script, with 12 or 13 graphemes (13 when including aleph) representing 24 sounds. In Typography, a grapheme is the fundamental unit in written language. Sound' is Vibration transmitted through a Solid, Liquid, or Gas; particularly sound means those vibrations composed of Frequencies In its later forms, attempts were made to improve the consonantary through diacritic marks. A diacritic ( also called a diacritic or diacritical mark, point, or sign, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation

Book Pahlavi continued to be in common use until about 900 CE. After that date, Pahlavi was preserved only by the Zoroastrian clergy who used it as a "secret" language.

Problems in reading and transliteration

Because of the convergence in form of many of the characters, there is a high degree of ambiguity in Pahlavi writing, which needs to be resolved by the context. For example, the name of God, Oharmazd, could equally be read (and, by Parsis, often was read) Anhoma. These difficulties were clearly felt by the Sassanian Persians themselves, as well as by modern scholars, as evidenced by the three methods used to reduce this ambiguity.

  1. Many common words were replaced by their Aramaic equivalents, which were used as ideograms: because of their limited number, these were easily recognisable. For example, the word for "dog" was written KLB (Aramaic, kalbā) but pronounced sag. These words were known as huzvarishn.
  2. Important religious texts were sometimes transcribed into the Avestan alphabet, which was phonetically unambiguous: this system is called Pazend. The Avestan alphabet is a writing system developed during the Sassanid era (226-651 in Iran to render the Avestan language. The Pazend or Pazand is one of the Writing systems used for the Middle Persian language
  3. After the Muslim conquest, the Pahlavi script was replaced by the Arabic script, except in Zoroastrian sacred literature.

Literary dialects

From a formal historical and linguistic point of view, the Pahlavi script does not have a one to one correspondence with any Middle Iranian language: none was written in Pahlavi exclusively, and inversely, the Pahlavi script was used for more than one language.

Arsacid Pahlavi

Main article: Parthian language

Following the overthrow of the Seleucids, the Parthian Arsacids - who considered themselves the legitimate heirs of the Achaemenids - adopted the manner, customs and government of the Persian court of two centuries previously. The Parthian language, also known as Arsacid Pahlavi, is a now-extinct ancient Northwestern Iranian language spoken in Parthia, a region of northeastern The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Among the many practices so adopted was the use of the Aramaic language ("Imperial Aramaic") that together with Aramaic script served as the language of the chancellery. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Aramaic is a Semitic language with The Aramaic alphabet is an Abjad, a Consonantal Alphabet, used for writing Aramaic.

By the end of the Arsacid era, the written Aramaic words had come to be understood as ideograms or logograms. An ideogram or ideograph (from Greek idea "idea" + grafo "to write" is a Graphic symbol that represents an Idea A logogram, or logograph, is a Grapheme which represents a word or a Morpheme (a meaningful unit of language Commonly occurring words, pronouns, particles, numerals and auxiliaries remained to a large measure derived from Aramaic. [10] So, for example, the word for "bread" would be written as Aramaic lxm (lahmā) but understood as the sign for Iranian nān. [11][12] To these "borrowings are tagged Iranian terminations, and it is the Iranian syntactical structure that preserves it from being classed under the Semitic group. The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, "[11]

The use of Pahlavi gained popularity following its adoption as the language/script of the commentaries (Zend) on the Avesta. The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. [11][3] Propagated by the priesthood, who were not only considered to be transmitters of all knowledge but were also instrumental in government, the use of Pahlavi eventually reached all corners of the Parthian Arsacid empire.

Arsacid Pahlavi is also called Parthian Pahlavi (or just Parthian), Chaldeo-Pahlavi or Northwest Pahlavi, the latter reflecting its apparent development from a dialect that was almost identical to that of the Medes. [2]

Sasanian Pahlavi

Main article: Middle Persian

Following the defeat of the Parthian Arsacids by the Persian Sasanians (Sassanids), the latter inherited the empire and its institutions, and with it the use of the Aramaic-derived language and script. Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Like the Parthians before him, Ardeshir, the founder of the second Persian Empire, projected himself as a successor to the regnal traditions of the first, in particular those of Artaxerxes II, whose throne name the new emperor adopted. Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, was ruler of Istakhr (206-241 subsequently Persia Artaxerxes II Mnemon ( Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 Artaxšaçrā, Ἀρταξέρξης (ca

From a linguistic point of view, there was probably only little distruption. Since the Sassanids had inherited the bureacracy, in the beginning the affairs of government went on as before, with the use of dictionaries such as the Frahang-i Pahlavig assisting the transition. Frahang-i Pahlavig (meaning Pahlavig dictionary is a dictionary of (mostly Aramaic language ideograms with Middle Persian translations (in Pahlavi script The royalty themselves came from a priestly tradition (Ardeshir's father and grandfather were both, in addition to being kings, also priests), and as such would have been proficient in the language and script. More importantly, being both Western Middle Iranian languages, Parthian was closely related to the dialect of the southwest (which was more properly called Pārsi,[4] that is, the language of Pārsā, Persia proper). The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. Fars (pronounced/fɑː(ɹs ( Persian: فارس Fârs) is one of the 30 provinces of Iran.

Arsacids Pahlavi did not die out with the Arsacids. It is represented in some bilingual inscriptions alongside the Sassanid Pahlavi; by the parchment manuscripts of Auroman; and by certain Manichaean texts from Turfan. Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Turfan or Tulufan (تۇرپان|Turpan|Turpan Modern Chinese: 吐魯番, Pinyin: Tǔlǔfān is an Oasis city in the By the end of the Sassanid era however, the two dialects had both evolved to where they were indistinguishable. The process may also have been accelerated by the influence of the Pazend movement, which sought to replace words from non-Iranian languages (primarily Aramaic) with Iranian language equivalents. The Pazend or Pazand is one of the Writing systems used for the Middle Persian language Although the Pazend movement also promoted the replacement of Pahlavi script with Din Dabireh, this did not gain sufficient popularity to survive the fall of the empire. The Avestan alphabet is a writing system developed during the Sassanid era (226-651 in Iran to render the Avestan language.

Sasanian Pahlavi is also called Sassanid Pahlavi, Persian Pahlavi or Southwest Pahlavi.

Post-conquest Pahlavi

Following the Islamic conquest of the Sassanids, the term Pahlavi came to refer to the (written) "language" of the southwest (i. e. Pārsi). How this came to pass remains unclear, but it has been assumed[4] that this was simply because it was the dialect that the conquerors would have been most familiar with.

As the language and script of religious and semi-religious commentaries, Pahlavi remained in use long after that language had been superseded (in general use) by Modern Persian and Arabic script had been adopted as the means to render it. As late as the 17th century, Zoroastrian priests in Iran admonished their Indian co-religionists to learn it. [13]

Post-conquest Pahlavi (or just Pahlavi) is also called Zoroastrian Pahlavi.

See also

References and bibliography

  1. ^ Geiger & Kuhn 2002, pp. Aramaic is a Semitic language with  249ff.
  2. ^ a b Kent 1953
  3. ^ a b c d Mirza 2002, p.  162.
  4. ^ a b c d Boyce 2002, p.  106.
  5. ^ Boyce 2002, p.  106 cf. Weber 1992.
  6. ^ Weber 1992, pp.  32-33.
  7. ^ Henning 1958, pp.  126-129
  8. ^ Gignoux 2002
  9. ^ Andreas 1910, pp.  869-872
  10. ^ Dhalla 1922, pp.  268.
  11. ^ a b c Dhalla 1922, p.  269.
  12. ^ Nyberg 1974.
  13. ^ Dhabar 1932 R382
  • Andreas, Friedrich Carl (1910), “Bruchstücke einer Pehlewi-Übersetzung der Psalmen aus der Sassanidenzeit”, Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaft, Philosophisch-historische Klasse. (Berlin: PAW) XLI (4): 869-872 
  • Boyce, Mary (2002), “The Parthians”, in Godrej, Pheroza J. Nora Elisabeth Mary Boyce ( &ndash) was a British scholar of Iranian languages, and a recognized authority on Zoroastrianism. , A Zoroastrian Tapestry, New York: Mapin 
  • Boyce, Mary (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism, Chicago: UC Press 
  • Dhabar, Bamanji Nusserwanji (1932), The Persian Rivayats of Hormazyar Framarz and others, Bombay: K. Nora Elisabeth Mary Boyce ( &ndash) was a British scholar of Iranian languages, and a recognized authority on Zoroastrianism. R. Cama Oriental Institute 
  • Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji (1922), Zoroastrian Civilization, New York: OUP 
  • Henning, Walter B. (1958), Altiranisch. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Erste Abteilung. Band IV: Iranistik. Erster Abschnitt. Linguistik. , Leiden-Köln: Brill 
  • Geiger, Wilhelm & Kuhn, Ernst, eds. Wilhelm Ludwig Geiger (1856-1943 was a German Orientalist in the fields of Indian and Iranian languages (2002), Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, vol. I. 1, Boston: Adamant 
  • Gignoux, Philippe (2002), “Pahlavi Psalter”, Encyclopedia Iranica, Cosa Mesa: Mazda 
  • Kent, Roland G. (1950), Old Persian: Grammar, texts, lexicon, New Haven: American Oriental Society 
  • MacKenzie, D. N. (1971), A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary, London: Curzon Press 
  • Mirza, Hormazdyar Kayoji (2002), “Literary treasures of the Zoroastrian priests”, in Godrej, Pheroza J. , A Zoroastrian Tapestry, New York: Mapin 
  • Nyberg, Henrik Samuel (1974), A Manual of Pahlavi, Part II: Glossary, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz 
  • Weber, Dieter (1992), Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum. Part III: Pahlavi Inscriptions. Vol. IV. Ostraca and Vol. V. Papyri. Texts I: Ostraca, Papyri und Pergamente, London: SOAS 
  • West, Edward William (1904), “Pahlavi literature”, in Geiger, Wilhelm & Kuhn, Ernst, Grundriss der iranischen Philologie II, Stuttgart: Trübner 

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