Oxytocin
Systematic (IUPAC) name
3-(19-amino-13-sec-butyl-7- (carboxymethyl)-4-(2-(1-(carboxymethylamino)-5- guanidino-1-oxopentan-2-ylcarbamoyl) pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl)-16-(4-hydroxybenzyl)- 6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-1,2-dithia-5,8,11,14,17- pentaazacycloicosan-10-yl)propanoic acid
Identifiers
CAS number	50-56-6
ATC code	H01BB02
PubChem	439302
DrugBank	BTD00016
Chemical data
Formula	C43H66N12O12S2
Mol. mass	1007. IUPAC Nomenclature is a system of naming Chemical compounds and of describing the science of Chemistry in general CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System is used for the classification of drugs It is controlled by the WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug A section of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. PubChem is a Database of chemical Molecules The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI a component The DrugBank database available at the University of Alberta is a unique Bioinformatics and Cheminformatics resource that combines detailed drug (i A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one 19 g/mol
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	nil
Protein binding	30%
Metabolism	hepatic oxytocinases
Half life	1-6 min
Excretion	Biliary and renal
Therapeutic considerations
Pregnancy cat.	A(AU)
Legal status	POM(UK) ℞-only(US)
Routes	Intranasal, IV, IM

Oxytocin (IPA: /ˌɔk. The Entrez Global Query Cross-Database Search System is a powerful Federated search engine or Web portal that allows users to search many discrete Health sciences The Human Genome Organisation (HUGO is an organization involved in the Human Genome Project, a project about mapping the human genome The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a Database that catalogues all the known Diseases with a genetic component, and—when possible—links them The National Center for Biotechnology Information ( NCBI) is part of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM a branch of the National Institutes Swiss-Prot is a manually curated Biological database of Protein sequences In the fields of Genetics and Evolutionary computation, a locus (plural loci) is a fixed position on a Chromosome such as the position of a Chromosome 20 is one of the 23 pairs of Chromosomes in Humans People normally have two copies of this chromosome The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic sɪ. ˈtoʊ. sɪn/) (Greek, "quick birth") is a mammalian hormone that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain

It best known for its roles in female reproduction: it is released in large amounts after distension of the cervix and vagina during labor, and after stimulation of the nipples, facilitating birth and breastfeeding, respectively. The cervix (from Latin "neck" is the lower narrow portion of the Uterus where it joins with the top end of the Vagina. The vagina (from Latin, literally " Sheath " or " Scabbard " is a fibromuscular tubular tract leading from the Uterus In its most general form a nipple is a Structure from which a fluid emanates Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or Breastfeeding is the feeding of an Infant or young Child with Breast milk directly from human Breasts, not from a Baby bottle or other Recent studies have begun to investigate oxytocin's role in various behaviors, including social recognition and bonding, anxiety, and maternal behaviors.

Synthesis, storage and release

Oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and is released into the blood from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Magnocellular neurosecretory cells are large cells within the Supraoptic nucleus and Paraventricular nucleus of the Hypothalamus. The supraoptic nucleus ( SON) is a nucleus of Magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the Hypothalamus of the mammalian brain The paraventricular nucleus (PVN is an aggregation of neurons in the Hypothalamus which produces many Hormones. The hypothalamus links the Nervous system to the Endocrine system via the Pituitary gland (hypophysis The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) comprises the Posterior lobe of the Pituitary gland and is part of the Endocrine system. The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an Endocrine gland about the size of a Pea. Oxytocin is also made by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.

In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to neurophysin I as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large peptide fragment of the larger precursor protein molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage. The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an Endocrine gland about the size of a Pea. Neurophysin I is a carrier Protein with a size of 10 K Da and containing 90 to 97 Aminoacids that transports neurohypophysial Hormones along Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins

Secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate action potentials that propagate down axons to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by exocytosis when the nerve terminals are depolarised. In Neurophysiology, the action potential is a self-regenerating Wave of Electrochemical activity that allows Nerve cells to carry a signal An axon or nerve fiber is a long slender projectionof a nerve cell or Neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's Cell Exocytosis (ek-soh-sy-TOH-sis Greek: Έξω - external and κύτος - cell is the durable process by which a cell directs secretory vesicles out of the Cell

Oxytocin is also synthesized by corpora lutea of several species, including ruminants and primates. The corpus luteum ( Latin for "yellow body" (plural corpora lutea) is a temporary Endocrine structure in mammals involved in production of Along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis of Prostaglandin-F2alpha to cause regression of the corpus luteum.

Structure and relation to vasopressin

Oxytocin is a peptide of nine amino acids (a nonapeptide). Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this The sequence is cysteine - tyrosine - isoleucine - glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - leucine - glycine (CYIQNCPLG). Not to be confused with Cystine, its oxidized dimer Cysteine (abbreviated as Cys or C) is an α- Amino acid with Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize Isoleucine (abbreviated as Ile or I) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH(CH3CH2CH3 Glutamine (abbreviated as Gln or Q; the abbreviation Glx or Z represents either glutamate or Glutamic acid) is one of the 20 Asparagine (abbreviated as Asn or N; Asx or B represent either asparagine or Aspartic acid) is one of the 20 most common natural Not to be confused with Cystine, its oxidized dimer Cysteine (abbreviated as Cys or C) is an α- Amino acid with Proline (abbreviated as Pro or P) is an α- Amino acid, one of the twenty DNA -encoded amino acids Leucine (abbreviated as Leu or L) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH2CH(CH32 Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH The cysteine residues form a sulfur bridge. In Chemistry, a disulfide bond is a single Covalent bond derived from the coupling of Thiol groups Oxytocin has a molecular mass of 1007 daltons. The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one The unified atomic mass unit ( u) or Dalton ( Da) or sometimes universal mass unit, is an unit of Mass used to express One international unit (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of about 2 micrograms of pure peptide. In Pharmacology, the International Unit is a unit of measurement for the amount of a substance based on measured Biological activity or effect In the Metric system, a microgram is 1/1000000 of a Gram (1 × 10-6 or 1/1000 of a milligram is one of the smallest units of weight/mass commonly used

Oxytocin structure. Inset shows oxytocin bound to neurophysin

The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of vasopressin (cysteine - tyrosine - phenylalanine - glutamine - asparagine - cysteine - proline - arginine - glycine), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge, whose sequence differs from oxytocin by 2 amino acids. Arginine vasopressin ( AVP) also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) is a Hormone found in Not to be confused with Cystine, its oxidized dimer Cysteine (abbreviated as Cys or C) is an α- Amino acid with Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize Phe redirects here For the BitTorrent feature see PHE. For the constellation see Phoenix (constellation. Glutamine (abbreviated as Gln or Q; the abbreviation Glx or Z represents either glutamate or Glutamic acid) is one of the 20 Asparagine (abbreviated as Asn or N; Asx or B represent either asparagine or Aspartic acid) is one of the 20 most common natural Not to be confused with Cystine, its oxidized dimer Cysteine (abbreviated as Cys or C) is an α- Amino acid with Proline (abbreviated as Pro or P) is an α- Amino acid, one of the twenty DNA -encoded amino acids Arginine (abbreviated as Arg or R) is an α- Amino acid. The L-form is one of the 20 most common natural amino acids Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino A table showing the sequences of members of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily and the species expressing them is present in the vasopressin article. Arginine vasopressin ( AVP) also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) is a Hormone found in Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1953, work for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955. Vincent du Vigneaud ( May 18, 1901 &ndash December 11, 1978) was an American Biochemist. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry.

Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. Corticotropin-releasing hormone ( CRH) originally named corticotropin-releasing factor ( CRF) and also called corticoliberin, is a Polypeptide Dynorphins are a class of Opioid peptides that arise from the precursor Protein prodynorphin The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects.

Actions

Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. The actions of oxytocin are mediated by specific, high affinity oxytocin receptors. The oxytocin receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor which requires Mg²⁺ and cholesterol. G protein-coupled receptors ( GPCRs) also known as seven transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, and Magnesium (mægˈniːziəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Mg, Atomic number 12 Atomic weight 24 Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian It belongs to the rhodopsin-type (class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors. Rhodopsin, also known as visual purple, is a Pigment of the Retina that is responsible for both the formation of the Photoreceptor cells and the

Peripheral (hormonal) actions

The peripheral actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the pituitary gland. (See oxytocin receptor for more detail on its action. Oxytocin receptors function as inducers of uterine contractions and milk ejection )

• Letdown reflex – in lactating (breastfeeding) mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into a collecting chamber, from where it can be extracted by compressing the areola and sucking at the nipple. Breastfeeding is the feeding of an Infant or young Child with Breast milk directly from human Breasts, not from a Baby bottle or other Lactation describes the secretion of Milk from the Mammary glands the process of providing that milk to the young and the period of time that a Mother Mammary glands are the organs that in Mammals produce Milk for the sustenance of the young This aritcle is about the breast tissue For the Entomology term see Glossary of Lepidopteran_terms#Wings. In its most general form a nipple is a Structure from which a fluid emanates Sucking by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus links the Nervous system to the Endocrine system via the Pituitary gland (hypophysis The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituitary gland.
• Uterine contraction – important for cervical dilation before birth and causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. In Medicine ( Obstetrics) a contraction is a forceful and painful motion of the Uterus as part of the process of Childbirth. Cervical dilation is the opening of the Cervix, the entrance to the uterus during Childbirth, Miscarriage, induced abortion, or gynecological Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful uterine contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in knockout mice lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition is normal. A knockout mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more Genes have been turned off through a Gene knockout. Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or ^[1]
• The relationship between oxytocin and human sexual response is unclear. At least two non-controlled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm – in both men and women. Blood plasma is the Liquid component of Blood, in which the Blood cells are suspended ^[2][3] The authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport. ^[2] Murphy et al. (1987), studying men, found that oxytocin levels were raised throughout sexual arousal and there was no acute increase at orgasm. ^[4] A more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. The authors noted that these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue. "^[5]
• Due to its similarity to vasopressin, it can reduce the excretion of urine slightly. Arginine vasopressin ( AVP) also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) is a Hormone found in Urine is a liquid waste product of the body secreted by the Kidneys by a process of filtration from Blood and Excreted through the Urethra. More important, in several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and in humans, high doses of oxytocin can result in hyponatremia. Hyponatremia ( British: hyponatraemia) is an Electrolyte disturbance (disturbance of the salts in the blood in which the Sodium ( Natrium
• Oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic The cardiac muscle is a type of involuntary striated Muscle found in the walls of the Heart. ^[6][7] However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies. A knockout mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more Genes have been turned off through a Gene knockout. ^[1]
• Modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis ( HPA or HTPA axis) also known as the Limbic -hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (LHPA axis is a complex set of direct influences Oxytocin, under certain circumstances, indirectly inhibits release of adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol and, in those situations, may be considered an antagonist of vasopressin. Adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH or corticotropin) is a Polypeptide Hormone produced and secreted by the Pituitary gland Cortisol is a Corticosteroid Hormone produced by the Adrenal gland (in the Zona fasciculata of the Adrenal cortex) Arginine vasopressin ( AVP) also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) is a Hormone found in ^[8]

Actions of oxytocin within the brain

Oxytocin secreted from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain because of the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier (BBB is a metabolic or cellular structure in the Central nervous system (CNS that restricts the passage of various chemical substances and microscopic Instead, the behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland. Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, septum and brainstem. The la amygdalae ( Latin, also la corpus amygdaloideum, singular la amygdala, from Greek el αμυγδαλή grc-Latn amygdalē, 'almond' The ventromedial nucleus (sometimes referred to as the ventromedial hypothalamus) is a nucleus of the Hypothalamus. A septum ( Latin: something that encloses; plural Septa) is a partition separating two cavities or spaces The brain stem (or brainstem) is the lower part of the Brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the Spinal cord.

• Sexual arousal. Oxytocin injected into the cerebrospinal fluid causes spontaneous erections in rats,^[9] reflecting actions in the hypothalamus and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF) Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear Bodily fluid that occupies the Subarachnoid space and the Ventricular system The erection of the Penis, Clitoris or a Nipple is its enlarged and firm state
• Bonding. In the Prairie Vole, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a monogamous pair bond with her sexual partner. The Prairie Vole ( Microtus ochrogaster) is a small Vole found in central North America. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males. Arginine vasopressin ( AVP) also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) is a Hormone found in ^[10] In people, plasma concentrations of oxytocin have been reported to be higher amongst people who claim to be falling in love. Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, and so it seems likely that it has similar roles in humans.
• Autism. Language development. The terminology A 1998 study found significantly lower levels of oxytocin in blood plasma of autistic children. ^[11] A 2003 study found a decrease in autism spectrum repetitive behaviors when oxytocin was administered intravenously. ^[12] A 2007 study reported that oxytocin helped autistic adults retain the ability to evaluate the emotional significance of speech intonation. ^[13]
• Maternal behavior. The maternal bond is typically the relationship between a Mother and her child Sheep and rat females given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior. A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or Drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor, but blocks By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior towards foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise. Cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF) Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear Bodily fluid that occupies the Subarachnoid space and the Ventricular system ^[14]
• Increasing trust and reducing fear. Trust is a relationship of reliance A trusted party is presumed to seek to fulfill policies, ethical codes Law and their previous promises In a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told that they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk-aversion. Risk aversion is a concept in Economics, Finance, and Psychology related to the behaviour of consumers and investors under uncertainty ^[15] Nasally administered oxytocin has also been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses). The la amygdalae ( Latin, also la corpus amygdaloideum, singular la amygdala, from Greek el αμυγδαλή grc-Latn amygdalē, 'almond' ^[16] There is no conclusive evidence for access of oxytocin to the brain through intranasal administration, however.
• Affecting generosity by increasing empathy during perspective taking. Generosity is the habit of giving without coercion. Often equated with charity as a Virtue, generosity is widely accepted in society In a neuroeconomics experiment, intranasal oxytocin increased generosity in the Ultimatum Game by 80% but has no effect in the Dictator Game that measures altruism. Neuroeconomics combines Neuroscience, Economics, and Psychology to study how people make decisions The ultimatum game is an Experimental economics game in which two players interact to decide how to divide a sum of money that is given to them The dictator game is a very simple game in Experimental economics, similar to the Ultimatum game. Perspective-taking is not required in the Dictator Game, but the researchers in this experimental explicitly induced perspective-taking in the Ultimatum Game by not identifying to participants which role they would be in. ^[17]
• According to some studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol) and reduces withdrawal symptoms. For other uses see Opiate (disambiguation, or for the class of drugs see Opioid. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Withdrawal, also known as withdrawal/abstinence syndrome, refers to the characteristic signs and symptoms that appear when a drug that causes Physical dependence is ^[18]
• Preparing fetal neurons for delivery. Crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitter GABA from excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system. This silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability to hypoxic damage. Chronic Hypoxia is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole ( generalized hypoxia) or region of the body ( tissue hypoxia) is deprived of adequate ^[19]
• Certain learning and memory functions are impaired by centrally administered oxytocin. ^[9]. Also, systemic oxytocin administration can impair memory retrieval in certain aversive memory tasks. ^[20]
• MDMA (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity via activation of serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, if initial studies in animals apply to humans. MDMA ( 34-methylenedioxy- N -methylamphetamine) most commonly known today by the street name Ecstasy (often abbreviated E, X, Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin receptor 1A is a 5-HT1 receptor. ^[21]

Drug forms

Synthetic oxytocin is sold as medication under the trade names Pitocin and Syntocinon and also as generic oxytocin. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease A generic drug (generic drugs short generics is a drug which is produced and distributed without Patent protection Oxytocin is destroyed in the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore must be administered by injection or as nasal spray. Nasal sprays, or nasal mists, are used for the nasal delivery of a drug or drugs generally to alleviate cold or Allergy symptoms such as Nasal congestion Oxytocin has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page Oxytocin given intravenously does not enter the brain in significant quantities - it is excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier. Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the giving of Liquid substances directly into a Vein. The blood-brain barrier (BBB is a metabolic or cellular structure in the Central nervous system (CNS that restricts the passage of various chemical substances and microscopic There is no evidence for significant CNS entry of oxytocin by nasal spray. Oxytocin nasal sprays have been used to stimulate breastfeeding but the efficacy of this approach is doubtful^[22].

Injected oxytocin analogues are used to induce labor and support labor in case of non-progression of parturition. It has largely replaced ergotamine as the principal agent to increase uterine tone in acute postpartum haemorrhage. Ergotamine is an Ergopeptine and part of the Ergot family of Alkaloids it is structurally and biochemically closely related to Ergoline. Obstetrical hemorrhage refers to heavy bleeding during Pregnancy, labor, or the Puerperium. Oxytocin is also used in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to increase milk production. Veterinary medicine the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife The tocolytic agent atosiban (Tractocile) acts as an antagonist of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labour between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. Tocolytics are medications used to suppress Premature labor (from the Greek tokos, Childbirth, and lytic, capable of dissolving Atosiban ( Tractocile or Antocin, RWJ 22164 is an inhibitor of the hormones Oxytocin and Vasopressin. A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or Drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor, but blocks It has fewer side-effects than drugs previously used for this purpose (ritodrine, salbutamol and terbutaline). Ritodrine hydrochloride (trade name Yutopar) is a Tocolytic Drug, used to stop Premature labor. Salbutamol ( INN) or albuterol ( USAN) is a short-acting β2-adrenergic receptor agonist used for the relief of Bronchospasm Terbutaline ( Trade names Brethine, Bricanyl, or Brethaire) is a β2-adrenergic receptor agonist, used as a fast-acting

Some have suggested that the trust-inducing property of oxytocin might help those who suffer from social anxieties, while others have noted the potential for abuse with confidence tricks. Social Phobia Social anxiety is a term used to describe an experience of Anxiety ( Emotional discomfort Fear, apprehension or Worry A confidence trick or confidence game (also known as a bunko, con, flim flam, gaffle, grift, scam, scheme ^[23]

Potential adverse reactions

Oxytocin is relatively safe when used at recommended doses. Potential side effects include:

• Central nervous system: Subarachnoid hemorrhage, seizures. An adverse drug reaction (abbreviated ADR) or adverse drug event (abbreviated ADE) is an expression that describes the unwanted negative consequences In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. Subarachnoid hemorrhage ( SAH,) or subarachnoid haemorrhage in British English, is Bleeding into the Subarachnoid space —the An epileptic seizure is caused by excessive and/or hypersynchronous electrical Neuronal activity and is usually self-limiting
• Cardiovascular: Increased heart rate, decreased blood pressure, systemic venous return, cardiac output, and arrhythmias. This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" Cardiac output (Q is the volume of blood being pumped by the Heart, in particular by a ventricle in a minute Dysrhythmia redirects here For the American band see Dysrhythmia (band.
• Genitourinary: Impaired uterine blood flow, pelvic hematoma, tetanic uterine contractions, uterine rupture, postpartum hemorrhage. In Anatomy, the genitourinary system is the Organ system of all the Reproductive organs and the Urinary system.

Evolution

Virtually all vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino The two genes are always located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same chromosome and are transcribed in opposite directions. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. It is thought that the two genes resulted from a gene duplication event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in cyclostomes (modern members of the Agnatha). Gene duplication (or chromosomal duplication) is any duplication of a region of DNA that contains a Gene; it may occur as an error in Homologous Agnatha ( Greek, "no jaws" is a Paraphyletic superclass of jawless fish in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata ^[9]

References

External links

• Caldwell, H. K. and Young, W. S. , III. Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Genetics and Behavioral Implications in Lim, R. (ed. ) Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology, 3rd edition, Springer, New York, pp. 573-607, 2006. 320kb PDF
• NewScientist.com - 'Release of Oxytocin due to penetrative sex reduces stress and neurotic tendencies', New Scientist (January 26, 2006)
• Oxytocin.org - 'I get a kick out of you: Scientists are finding that, after all, love really is down to a chemical addiction between people', The Economist (February 12, 2004)
• SMH.com.au - 'To sniff at danger: Inhalable oxytocin could become a cure for social fears', Boston Globe (January 12, 2006)
• Hug the Monkey - A weblog devoted entirely to oxytocin
• PsychCentral.com - Biochemical effects of betrayal (May 23, 2008)

• A Neurophysiologic Model of the Circuitry of Oxytocin in Arousal, Female Distress and Depression - Rainer K. Liedtke, MD