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The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923) (Old Ottoman Turkish: دولت عالیه عثمانیه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu), was a multi-ethnic and multi-religious Turkish-ruled state. A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is A Silver Coin, the akçe was the chief monetary unit of the Ottoman Empire. Kuruş (derived from the German Groschen; Ottoman Turkish: غروش gurûş) is a Turkish currency subunit The Lira ( Turkish Türk lirası or TL) was the currency of Turkey until 2005 This article provides a timeline of the Ottoman Empire. See also Timeline of the Republic of Turkey, a chronology of the successor state to the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlıca or tr ''Osmanlı Türkçesi'' Ottoman Turkish ota-Latn ''lisân-ı Osmânî'' is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language The state was known as the Turkish Empire or Turkey by its contemporaries. (See the other names of the Ottoman State. The State of the Ottomans which began as part of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate and became an independent Empire, has been known historically ) It was succeeded by the Republic of Turkey, which was officially proclaimed on October 29, 1923. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches
At the height of its power (16th–17th century), it spanned three continents, controlling much of Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar (and, in 1553, the Atlantic coast of Morocco beyond Gibraltar) in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east, from the edge of Austria, Slovakia and parts of Ukraine in the north to Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia and Yemen in the south. This is a list of Ottoman Empire dominated territories across Europe, Asia and Africa (1299-1922 The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Strait of Gibraltar ( Arabic: مضيق جبل طارق Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar) is the Strait that connects the Atlantic Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Royal Hungary was the name of a territory of medieval Hungary (together with Kingdom of Croatia) where the Habsburgs were recognized as Kings of Hungary The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea (Qırım Hanlığı|قريم خانلغى Крымское ханство - Krymskoye khanstvo; Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known as the Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia. Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians Transylvania (Ardeal or ro ''Transilvania'' Erdély, see also other denominations) is a Central European region located in the eastern half of the Carpathian This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania
The Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. The term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various Cultures social structures and philosophical systems of " the East " The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings The Ottoman Empire was, in many respects, an Islamic successor to the earlier Roman "Byzantine" empire. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of these previous two empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottomans, who elaborated them into new forms. These cultural traits were later blended with the characteristics of the ethnic and religious groups living within the Ottoman territories, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity.
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Rise (1299–1453)
With the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rūm (about 1300), Turkish Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. The rise of the Ottoman Empire is the period from the late thirteenth century to 1453 The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language Mail (also maille, often given as chain mail or chain maille) is a type of Armour or jewellery that consists of small metal rings linked Ghazw or Ghazah (plural ghazawāt) (غزو was originally an Arabic term referring to the battles in which the Islamic prophet Muhammad personally
By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had seen most of its Anatolian provinces lost among some ten Ghazi principalities. One of the Ghazi emirates was led by Osman I (from which the name Ottoman is derived), son of Ertuğrul in the region of Eskişehir in western Anatolia. Ghazw or Ghazah (plural ghazawāt) (غزو was originally an Arabic term referring to the battles in which the Islamic prophet Muhammad personally Osman I (1258 Sogut, Anatolia, Turkey &ndash1326 Sogut) Ottoman: عثمان بن أرطغرل Turkish: Osman This article is about the Ottoman leader Ertuğrul. For the Ottoman frigate see Ertuğrul (Ottoman frigate. Eskişehir ( eskē'shehēr, Eskişehir "Old City" Latin: Dorylaeum; Greek: Δορύλαιον Dorylaion) is a city According to tradition, as Ertuğrul migrated across Asia Minor leading approximately four hundred horsemen, he chanced upon a battle between two armies. Having decided to intervene, he chose the side of the losing army and turned the battle in their favour to secure victory. The troops he supported happened to be those of a Seljuk Sultan who rewarded him with territory in Eskişehir. [2] Following Ertuğrul's death in 1281, Osman became chief, or Bey, and by 1299 declared himself a sovereign ruler from the Seljuk state. Bey is a Turkish title for "chieftain" traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups
Osman I extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the Byzantine Empire. Osman I (1258 Sogut, Anatolia, Turkey &ndash1326 Sogut) Ottoman: عثمان بن أرطغرل Turkish: Osman He moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa, and shaped the early political development of the nation. Bursa (historically also known as Prussa, Greek: Προύσα and later as Brusa) is a city in northwestern Turkey and the seat Given the nickname "Kara" (Turkish for black) for his courage,[3] Osman I was admired as a strong and dynamic ruler long after his death, as evident in the centuries-old Turkish phrase, "May he be as good as Osman. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. " His reputation has also been burnished by the medieval Turkish story known as "Osman's Dream", a foundation myth in which the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire. Foundation of the Ottoman Empire is one of the oldest sources regarding the establishment of the Ottoman Empire.
This period saw the creation of a formal Ottoman government whose institutions would remain largely unchanged for almost four centuries. The governing of the Ottoman Empire is more than the description of its court customs ceremonies and officials with catalogues of their provinces and duties The government utilized the legal entity known as the millet, under which religious and ethnic minorities were able to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire.
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The weaknesses of the fragmented Balkan states following the death of Stefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia in 1355 opened wide the door to the conquest of the Balkan Peninsula The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, and the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica This page is about the Battle of Kosovo of 1389; for other battles see Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation. The Kingdom of Serbia ( Serbian Cyrillic: Краљевина Србија Serbian Latinica Kraljevina Srbija) was created when Prince Milan Obrenović ruler The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. There were at least 11 Sieges of Constantinople during the history of the Byzantine Empire. The Empire controlled nearly all of the former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Tamerlane invaded Anatolia with the Battle of Ankara in 1402, taking Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner. Byzantine Greeks or Byzantines or Romaioi, is a conventional term used by modern historians to refer to the medieval Greek or Hellenized citizens Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Battle of Ankara or Battle of Angora, fought on July 20 or July 28 1402 took place northeast of Ankara at the field of Çubuk Bayezid I ( Ottoman: بايزيد الأول Turkish: Beyazıt, nicknamed Yıldırım (Ottoman ییلدیرم "the Thunderbolt" Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by between the 1430s and 1450s. Murad II ( June 1404 Amasya February 3, 1451, Edirne) ( Ottoman Turkish: مراد ثانى Murād-ı sānī
The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war which lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the period of Interregnum. Mehmed I Çelebi ( Ottoman: چلبی محمد IMehmet or Çelebi Mehmet) (1389 May 26 1421 Edirne, Turkey) was a sultan of the The Ottoman Interregnum (also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate; Fetret Devri in Turkish) was a period in the beginning of the 15th His grandson, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the structure of both the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on May 29, 1453, at the age of 21. The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the The city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, and Mehmed II assumed the title of Kayser-i Rûm (Roman Emperor). However, this title was not recognized by the Greeks or Western Europe, while the Russian Czars claimed to be the successors of the Eastern Imperial title as well. Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. To consolidate his claim, Mehmed II aspired to gain control over the Western capital, Rome, as well; and Ottoman forces occupied parts of the Italian peninsula, starting from Otranto and Apulia on July 28, 1480. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Th Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula (Penisola italiana or Penisola appenninica) is one of the three Peninsulas of Southern Europe In 1480 and 1481 the city and fort of Otranto, in Apulia, southern Italy, were held by Ottoman troops Apulia ( Italian: Puglia) is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east the Ionian Sea Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. But after Mehmed II's death on May 3, 1481, the campaign on Italy was canceled and the Ottoman forces retreated. Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João
Growth (1453–1683)
This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: an era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth prior to 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation. During the growth of the Ottoman Empire (also known as the " Pax Ottomana " the Ottoman Empire expanded southwestwards into North Africa
Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)
The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Jean Joseph Benjamin Constant, also written Benjamin-Constant, (1845-1902 was a French historical and Portrait painter. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS During this time, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman navy established the Empire as a great trading power. The state also flourished economically thanks to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.
The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective sultans. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Persia, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I ( Ottoman: سليم الأول, Turkish: ISelim; also known as "the Grim" or "the Brave" Yavuz in The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Battle of Chaldiran (also Chaldoran or Çaldıran) occurred on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive victory for the Ottoman Empire over [4] Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1517 Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region. The Portuguese Empire was the earliest and longest lived of the modern European colonial empires spanning almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta [5]
Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. The Battle of Mohács (mohácsi csata or mohácsi vész/Bane of Mohács; Schlacht bei Mohács Mohačka bitka Мохачка битка/Mohačka bitka Bitka pri Moháči Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Suleiman I (سليمان Sulaymān, Süleyman almost always Kanuni Sultan Süleyman) ( 6 November 1494 5/ 6 September 1566 After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the Kingdom of Hungary and established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories, after his victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526. Belgrade (Београд Beograd is the Capital and largest city of Serbia. The Kingdom of Hungary (short form Hungary) was a considerable state in Central Europe that existed from 1001 to 1918 then from 1919 to 1946 Ottoman Hungary refers to parts of the Ottoman Empire situated in what is today Hungary in the period from 1541 to 1699. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and The Battle of Mohács (mohácsi csata or mohácsi vész/Bane of Mohács; Schlacht bei Mohács Mohačka bitka Мохачка битка/Mohačka bitka Bitka pri Moháči He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat. The Siege of Vienna in 1529, as distinct from the Battle of Vienna in 1683, was the first attempt of the Muslim Ottoman Empire, led by [6] In 1532, another planned attack on Vienna with an army thought to be over 250,000 strong, was repulsed 60 miles (97 km) south of Vienna, at the fortress of Güns. Kőszeg (Güns Croatian: Kiseg is a town in Vas county, Hungary. After further advances by the Ottomans in 1543, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognised Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. Transylvania (Ardeal or ro ''Transilvania'' Erdély, see also other denominations) is a Central European region located in the eastern half of the Carpathian This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians In the east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population reached about 15,000,000 people. [7]
.jpg/180px-Battle_of_Preveza_(1538).jpg)
Under Selim and Suleiman, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha ( Turkish: Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa or Hızır Hayreddin Paşa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the The Holy League of 1538 was a short-lived alliance of Christian states arranged by Pope Paul III at the urging of the Republic of Venice. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Andrea Doria or D'Oria ( 30 November 1466 &ndash 25 November 1560) was a Genoese ''condottiere'' and Admiral The naval Battle of Preveza took place on 28 September 1538 near Preveza in northwestern Greece between an Ottoman fleet and [8] The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Turkish navy during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha ( Turkish: Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa or Hızır Hayreddin Paşa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the Among these were the conquest of Tunis and Algeria from Spain; the evacuation of Muslims and Jews from Spain to the safety of Ottoman lands (particularly Salonica, Cyprus, and Constantinople) during the Spanish Inquisition; and the capture of Nice from the Holy Roman Empire in 1543. Tunis ( Arabic: تونس Tūnis) is the Capital of the Tunisian Republic and also the Tunis Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain Nice (nis Niçard Occitan: Niça norm or Nissa, Italian: Nizza or Nizza Marittima, Greek The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in This last conquest occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and those of Barbarossa. Francis I (September 12 1494 &ndash March 31 1547 was crowned King of France in 1515 in the cathedral at Reims and reigned until 1547 [9] France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in southern and central Europe, became strong allies during this period. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The alliance was economic as well as military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was by this time a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere, and entered into a military alliance with France, England and the Netherlands against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of England was a State (927-1707 located in Western Europe dating from the ninth or tenth century to the early eighteenth century when it was legally The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Habsburg Spain refers to the history of Spain over the 16th and 17th centuries (1516-1700 when this country was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty (also associated to The Archduchy of Austria (Erzherzogtum Österreich one of the most important states within the Holy Roman Empire, was the center of the Habsburg Monarchy and
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface This article covers the historical role of the Maluku Islands as a source of spices since early history when the islands where known as the Spice Islands With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish On land, the Empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria and Persia, two widely-separated theaters of war. The Archduchy of Austria (Erzherzogtum Österreich one of the most important states within the Holy Roman Empire, was the center of the Habsburg Monarchy and The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defense on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.
Revolts and revival (1566–1683)
Suleiman's death in 1566 marked the beginning of an era of diminishing territorial gains. The rise of western European nations as naval powers and the development of alternative sea routes from Europe to Asia and the New World damaged the Ottoman economy. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Vienna ( German: Schlacht am Kahlenberg, Polish: Bitwa pod Wiedniem or Odsiecz Wiedeńska, Turkish: İkinci
European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of overland trade routes. Western European states began to circumvent the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia. Economically, the huge influx of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society. Sokullu Mehmet Pasha, who was the grand vizier of Selim II, created the projects of Suez Channel and Don-Volga Channel to save the economy but these were cancelled as well. Biography Early years Little is known for certain about Mehmed's birth and early life Selim II ( Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى Selīm-i sānī, Turkish: II
In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by Philip II of Spain, formed an alliance to diminish Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean Sea. The Battle of Lepanto ( Greek: Ναύπακτος Naupaktos, pron Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Their victory over the Ottomans at the naval Battle of Lepanto (1571) hastened the end of the Empire's primacy in the Mediterranean. The Battle of Lepanto ( Greek: Ναύπακτος Naupaktos, pron In fact, Lepanto was considered by some earlier historians to signal the beginning of Ottoman decline. By the end of the 16th century, the golden era of sweeping conquest and territorial expansion was over. Nevertheless, within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern galleasses[10] had been built, with the harbours of Constantinople turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In any case Lepanto was a mere "revenge attack" since Cyprus had been taken from the Venetians before the two navies engaged in 1571. In discussing with a Venetian minister, the Turkish Grand Vizier commented "In capturing Cyprus from you we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard". [11] The Sultan himself said, "the infidel has only singed my beard. It will grow again. "[12] In reality, the enormous loss of experienced sailors proved to be a disaster from which the Ottomans never recovered, diminishing the effectiveness of their fleet. [13]
The Habsburg frontier in particular became a more or less permanent border until the 19th century, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The Battle of Vienna ( German: Schlacht am Kahlenberg, Polish: Bitwa pod Wiedniem or Odsiecz Wiedeńska, Turkish: İkinci This stalemate was mostly caused by the European development of the trace italienne, low bastioned fortifications built by Austria along the border that were almost impossible to capture without lengthy sieges. A star fort or trace italienne is a Fortification in the style that evolved during the age of Black powder, when cannons came The Ottomans had no answer to these new-style fortifications that rendered the artillery they previously used so effectively (as in the Siege of Constantinople) almost useless. The stalemate was also a reflection of simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Constantinople during the early-spring to late-autumn campaigning season. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to maintain two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: Ottoman wars in Europe), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the Safavids of Persia (see: Ottoman wars in Near East). The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older European The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia
On the battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation which fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism. Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the military revolution caused the once-feared Sipahi cavalry to lose military relevance. The Military Revolution is a term used by some historians for a radical change in military strategy and tactics that is usually placed between the late Medieval era and the Sipahi ( Ottoman Turkish: ota سپاهی also transliterated as Spahi, Sepahi, and Spakh; traditionally rendered as Spahia Discipline and unit cohesion in the army also became a problem because of relaxations in recruitment policy and the growth of the Janissary corps at the expense of other military units. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed The development of pike and shot and later linear tactics with increased use of firearms by Europeans proved deadly against the massed infantry in close formation used by the Ottomans. Pike and shot is a historical method of infantry combat and also refers to an era of European warfare generally considered to cover the period from the Italian Wars (fought
Murad IV (1612–1640), who recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids, is the only example in this era of a sultan who exercised strong political and military control of the Empire. Murad IV ( Ottoman Turkish: مراد رابع Murād-i rābi‘) ( June 16, 1612 February 9, 1640 Yerevan (Երևան Երեւան or Երեվան ˌjɛrəˈvɑːn sometimes written as Erevan, Iravan, Erewan, Ayrivan, and Erivan Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Notably, Murad IV was the last Ottoman emperor who led his forces from the front. Murad IV ( Ottoman Turkish: مراد رابع Murād-i rābi‘) ( June 16, 1612 February 9, 1640
The Jelali revolts (1519–1610) and Janissary revolts (1622) caused widespread lawlessness and rebellion in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, and toppled several governments. Jelali revolts (Celalî ayaklanmaları were a series of Rebellions in Anatolia against the authority of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government. [14]
The Sultanate of women (1530s–1660s) was a period in which the political impact of the Imperial Harem was unchallenged, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The Sultanate of Women ( Turkish: Kadınlar Saltanatı) was the near 130-year period during the 16th and 17th centuries when the women of the Imperial Harem The Imperial Harem or Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court Hürrem Sultan, who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of Nurbanu, the first Valide Sultan, was described by the Venetian Baylo Andrea Giritti as 'a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom' despite the fact that she 'thwarted some while rewarding others'. Roxelana (c 1510 - April 18, 1558) was the only legal wife of Süleyman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. Valide Sultan (or Sultan valide) (literally Sultan's parent was the title held by the mother of a ruling Sultan in the Ottoman Empire. A bailo, also spelled baylo, (singular baili / bailos is plural was a diplomat who oversaw the affairs of the Venetians in Constantinople, and was a permanent [15] The last prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651. Turhan Hatice (Sultan ( 1628? &ndash1683 was one of the hasekis ("favourite Concubine " of the Ottoman Sultan Ibrahim This period gave way to the Köprülü Era (1656–1703), during which the Empire was controlled first by the powerful members of the Imperial Harem, and later by a sequence of Grand Viziers. The Köprülü era (1656-1703 was the period which Ottoman Empire 's politics were set by the Grand Viziers mainly the Köprülü family, which was The Imperial Harem or Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court Grand Vizier, in Turkish Sadr-ı Azam ( Sadrazam) or Serdar-ı Ekrem (in Ottoman Turkish: صدر اعظم or وزیر اعظم The relative ineffectiveness of the successive sultans and the diffusion of power to lower levels of the government have characterized the Köprülü Era.
Stagnation and reform (1699–1827)
During the stagnation period much territory in the Balkans was ceded to Austria. Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire ( 1683 - 1827) was a period after the territorial expansion of the Empire reached its maximum Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire ( 1683 - 1827) was a period after the territorial expansion of the Empire reached its maximum The Archduchy of Austria (Erzherzogtum Österreich one of the most important states within the Holy Roman Empire, was the center of the Habsburg Monarchy and Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of Britain and France. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The 18th century saw centralized authority giving way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders. A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th century. The Russo-Turkish wars were a series of wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire during the 16th 17th 18th 19th and 20th centuries The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya
The long period of Ottoman stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as Istanbul Technical University; Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire covers the topics related to achievements and distinguished events that happened during the existence of the empire Istanbul Technical University ( ITU, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi commonly referred to as İTÜ or Teknik Üniversite is an international Technical university Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire covers the topics related to achievements and distinguished events that happened during the existence of the empire By this period though the influences had become regressive and conservative. The guilds of writers denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 43-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in 1450 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the Gutenberg press in Constantinople that was established by the Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg ( 1398 &ndash February 3, 1468) was a German Goldsmith and printer who is credited Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Sephardic Jews migrated to the Ottoman Empire as they escaped from the Spanish Inquisition of 1492. The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain
The Tulip Era (or Lâle Devri in Turkish), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The Tulip period or Tulip era ( Ottoman Turkish: لاله دورى, Turkish: Lâle Devri) is the traditional name for a period Tulipa, commonly called tulip, is a Genus of about 150 species of bulbous Flowering plants in the family Liliaceae. The region was peaceful between 1718 and 1730, after the Ottoman victory against Russia in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz brought a period of pause in warfare. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Russo-Turkish War of 1710–1711 was the southernmost theatre of the Great Northern War between Sweden and many of its neighbors The Treaty of Passarowitz or Treaty of Požarevac was the Peace treaty signed in Požarevac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Пожаревац The Empire began to improve the fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.
Ottoman military reform efforts begin with Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. When Selim III came to the throne in 1789 an ambitious effort of military reform was launched geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. Selim III ( Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) ( December 24, 1761 &ndash July 28/29 These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionist movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a Janissary revolt. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826. Mahmud II ( Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) ( July 20, 1785 July 1, 1839
Decline and modernization (1828–1908)
The period of Ottoman decline (loss of huge territories) is typically characterized by historians also as an era of modern times. The military and political events during the decline of the Ottoman Empire covers the era between 1828 to 1908 The Empire lost territory on all fronts, and there was administrative instability because of the breakdown of centralized government, despite efforts of reform and reorganization such as the Tanzimat. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 During this period, the Empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The Empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Russia. As an example, in the Crimean War the Ottomans united with the British, French, and others against Russia. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending
During the Tanzimat period (from Arabic Tanzîmât, meaning "reorganization") (1839–1876), a series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, and the replacement of guilds with modern factories. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods In 1856, the Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane. The Hatt-ı Hümayun ( Imperial Edict, Imperial Reform Edict or Rescript of Reform) was a February 18, 1856 edict of the The Hatt-i Sharif (Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane (Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber was an 1839 proclamation by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I that The Christian millets gained privileges; such as in 1863 the Armenian National Constitution (Ottoman Turkish:"Nizâmnâme-i Millet-i Ermeniyân") was Divan approved form of the "Code of Regulations" composed of 150 articles drafted by the "Armenian intelligentsia", and newly formed "Armenian National Assembly". Armenian National Constitution or Regulation of the Armenian Nation (Turkish"Nizâmnâme-i Millet-i Ermeniyân" (1863 was Ottoman Empire approved form Ottoman Porte (also Sublime Porte, High Porte, or in Ottoman Turkish, Bab-ı Ali) used to refer to the Divan (court Armenian National Assembly was the governing body of the Armenian Millet established by Armenian National Constitution of 1863 under Ottoman [16] The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. The Kanûn-ı Esâsî (قانون اساسى was the first Constitution of the Ottoman Empire. The term basic law is used in some places as an alternative to " Constitution " implying it is a temporary but necessary measure without formal enactment The Young Ottomans (Yeni Osmanlilar were a group of Ottoman nationalist intellectuals formed in 1865, influenced by such Western thinkers as Montesquieu Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of Year 1876 ( MDCCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year It established freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law.
The Empire's First Constitutional era (or Birinci Meşrûtiyet Devri in Turkish), was short-lived; however, the idea behind it (Ottomanism), proved influential as a wide-ranging group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would provide an answer to the Empire's growing social unrest. The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of Constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî Ottomanism ( Osmanlılık or Osmanlıcılık) was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. The Young Ottomans (Yeni Osmanlilar were a group of Ottoman nationalist intellectuals formed in 1865, influenced by such Western thinkers as Montesquieu A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. Abdülaziz ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد العزيز ( February 9, 1830 June 4 1876) was the 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed Murad V ( September 21, 1840 - August 29, 1904) (مراد الخامس was the 33rd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire However, Murad V was mentally ill, and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) was invited to assume power on the condition that he would accept to declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. Abdülhamid II His Imperial Majesty Sultan of the Ottoman Empire ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, İkinci Abdülhamit Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of Year 1876 ( MDCCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year However, the parliament survived for only two years. The sultan suspended, not abolished, the parliament until he was forced to reconvene it. The effectiveness of Kanûn-ı Esâsî was then largely minimized. The Kanûn-ı Esâsî (قانون اساسى was the first Constitution of the Ottoman Empire.
The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire was not immune. The rise of the Western notion of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the break-down of the Ottoman millet A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman empire, as it was forced to deal with nationalism-related issues both within and beyond its borders. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Ethnic nationalism is a form of Nationalism wherein the " Nation " is defined in terms of Ethnicity. There was a significant increase in the number of revolutionary political parties. List of parties in Ottoman Empire gives an overview of parties in Ottoman Empire. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. An ethnic conflict or ethnic war is a war between Ethnic groups often as a result of Ethnic nationalism. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. Greece declared its independence from the Empire in 1829 after the end of the Greek War of Independence. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829 also commonly known as the Greek Revolution (Ελληνική Επανάσταση Elliniki Epanastasi; Ottoman Reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost 6 decades; in 1875 Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Wallachia and Moldova declared their independence from the Empire; and following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, independence was formally granted to Serbia, Romania and Montenegro, and autonomy to Bulgaria, with the other Balkan territories remaining under Ottoman control. Danubian Principalities (Principatele Dunărene was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which emerged in the Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! The Province of Bosnia or Pashaluk of Bosnia was a key Ottoman province the westernmost one mostly based on the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova ( Republica Moldova) is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania Russo-Turkish War may refer to one of the following conflicts between Imperial Russia and the Ottoman Empire: Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570 Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian A Serbian Jew, Yehuda Solomon Alkalai, encouraged a return to Zion and independence for Israel during this wave of decolonialization. Following defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, Cyprus was lent to the British in 1878 in exchange for Britain's favors at the Congress of Berlin. Russo-Turkish War may refer to one of the following conflicts between Imperial Russia and the Ottoman Empire: Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570 Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía See also Berlin Conference (1884-85 re Africa and Berlin Conference of 1954 (Cold War Egypt, which had previously been occupied by the forces of Napoleon in 1798 but recovered in 1801 by a joint Ottoman-British force, was occupied in 1882 by British forces on the pretext of bringing order; though Egypt and Sudan remained Ottoman provinces de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I, and Britain officially annexed these two provinces as a response. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. For the HMS Khedive, see ''USS'' Cordova. Khedive (from Persian for "lord" was a title first The Central Powers ( German: "Mittelmächte" Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak" Turkish: "İttifak World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting from Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab )
Economically, the Empire had difficulty in repaying the Ottoman public debt to European banks, which caused the establishment of The Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt. The Ottoman public debt was a term dated back to 1854 when the Ottoman Empire contracted its European creditors shortly after the beginning with the Crimean War. The Ottoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA established 1881 was a European-controlled organization was set up to collect the payments that Ottoman Empire owned to companies By the end of the 19th century, the main reason the Empire was not entirely overrun by Western powers came from the Balance of Power doctrine. In International relations, a balance of power exists when there is parity or stability between competing forces Both Austria and Russia wanted to increase their spheres of influence and territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, but were kept in check mostly by the United Kingdom, which feared Russian dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Dissolution (1908–1922)
The Second Constitutional Era (Turkish: İkinci Meşrûtiyet Devri'') established after the Young Turk Revolution (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament marks the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922 began with the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution and ended with the partitioning of the Empire The Second Constitutional Era (ايکنجى مشروطيت دورى İkinci Meşrûtiyyet Devri) of the Ottoman Empire began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 reversed the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, marking the onset of the Second Constitutional Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Year 1908 ( MCMVIII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922 began with the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution and ended with the partitioning of the Empire This era is dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress (Turkish: İttihâd ve Terakkî Cemiyeti), and the movement that would become known as the Young Turks (Turkish: Jön Türkler). The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP (İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti initially a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" (İttihad-ı Osmanî Cemiyeti Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. The Young Turks ( Turkish: Jön Türkler (plural from French: Jeunes Turcs) were a coalition of various groups favoring reforming the Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan During the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire, which lost its Balkan territories except Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Edirne (Adrianople) with the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (also known in Italy as guerra di Libia, "the Libyan war" and in Turkey as Trablusgarp Savaşı) was fought The Balkan League was the alliance of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria against the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe Edirne (anc Hadrianopolis; Greek Adrianople; Slavic/Bulgarian Одрин, see also its other names) is a city in Thrace, the westernmost The Balkan Wars were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League ( Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece The Baghdad Railway under German control became a source of international tension and played a role in the origins of World War I. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Ottoman Empire planned to construct a Baghdad Railway under German control Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All [17] The Ottoman Empire entered the First World War after the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau and took part in the Middle Eastern theatre on the side of the Central Powers. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The pursuit of Goeben and Breslau was a naval action that occurred in the Mediterranean Sea at the outbreak of the First World War when The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was fought between the Allied Powers, primarily the British and the Russians on the one hand and the The Central Powers ( German: "Mittelmächte" Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak" Turkish: "İttifak There were several important victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut; but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The Siege of Kut was a major battle of World War I. It was part of the Mesopotamian Campaign (in what is now Iraq) The Caucasus Campaign comprised armed conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire, later including the Armenia, Central Caspian Dictatorship The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand. The Arab Revolt (1916&ndash1918 ( الثورة العربية Al-Thawra al-`Arabīya) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing
The interior minister of the period, Talat Pasha, expressing the fear that the ethnic Armenians of the Empire would form a Fifth Column, ordered the arrest of Armenian leaders with a circular on April 24, 1915 and sent a request for the Tehcir Law on May 29, 1915, which initiated large scale deportations and massacres of the Armenians. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman Mehmed Talat (Mehmet Tâlât (1874-1921 also known as Talat Pasha was one of the first important members of the Committee of Union and Progress. A fifth column is a group of people who clandestinely undermine a larger group to which it is expected to be loyal such as a Nation. The Red Sunday - (Կարմիր Կիրակի is the night which the leaders of Armenian community of the Ottoman capital Constantinopole, and later extending to other centers The Tehcir Law ("Regulation for the settlement of Armenians relocated to other places because of war conditions and emergency political requirements" was passed by the Ottoman Deportation, not to be confused with Extradition, generally means the expulsion of someone from a place or Country. In response was the creation of an Armenian resistance (April 1915) movement in the province of Van and the establishment of an Armenian Administration. The Resistance at Van (Վանի Հերոսամարտ was an Insurgency against the Ottoman Empire 's attempts to eliminate the Armenian population in the Van is a province in eastern Turkey, between Lake Van and the Iranian border This article is about the short-lived Armenian "provisional government The Ottoman government had accused the Armenians of being in collaboration with the invading Russian forces in eastern Anatolia against their native state because of the Armenian volunteer units in the Russian Army. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Armenian volunteer units or " Armenian volunteer corps " were Armenian battalions in Russian and British armies during the World War I. Organized by the Ottoman government of that time, the Ottoman soldiers and Kurdish warlords killed Armenians indiscriminately both in their villages and as they marched south to camps in the Syrian Desert, during what is known as the Armenian Genocide. " The Three Pashas " also known as the " dictatorial triumvirate " of the Ottoman Empire included the Ottoman Minister of the interior, Mehmed The Syrian Desert (بادية الشام badiyah ash sham also known as the Syro-Arabian desert is a combination of Steppe and true Desert that is located in parts [18]
When the Armistice of Mudros was signed in 1918, Yemen, together with Medina, was the only part of the Arabian peninsula that was still under Ottoman control. The Armistice of Moudros ( 30 October 1918) ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as However, the Ottomans were eventually forced to cede Yemen and Medina following the armistice, along with parts of present-day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan which were gained by the Ottoman forces during the final stages of the war, following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between The Democratic Republic of Armenia ( DRA; Armenian: Դեմոկրատական Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Demokratakan Hayastani Hanrapetutyun Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them Under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was solidified. The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. The new countries created from the remnants of the Empire currently number 40 (including the disputed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). This is a list of Ottoman Empire dominated territories across Europe, Asia and Africa (1299-1922 The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ( TRNC) (Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti KKTC) commonly called Northern Cyprus (Kuzey Kıbrıs though its Given the fact that the Turkish peasantry of Anatolia dropped to 40% of the pre-war levels, regardless of the method used in calculations, the Ottoman Empire's casualties during World War I were significant. Ottoman casualties of World War I covers the casualties of the Ottoman Empire during that war [19]
The occupation of Constantinople along with the occupation of Smyrna mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement, which won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Mehmed VI ( Turkish: Mehmed Vahideddin or Mehmet Vahdettin) ( January 14 1861 May 16 1926) was the 36th and The Occupation of İzmir was the rule in the İzmir district by Greek forces under the High Commissioner Aristidis Stergiadis, aligned with the Allied " The establishment of the Turkish national movement " explains the creation of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman [20] The Sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on November 17, 1922. Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Mehmed VI ( Turkish: Mehmed Vahideddin or Mehmet Vahdettin) ( January 14 1861 May 16 1926) was the 36th and Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The new independent Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi - TBMM, usually referred to simply as Meclis - "the Parliament" is the Unicameral The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning Events 1132 - Battle of Nocera between Ranulf II of Alife and Roger II of Sicily. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The GNA officially declared the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on March 3, 1924. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Sultan and his family were declared persona non grata of Turkey and exiled. Fifty years later, in 1974, the GNA granted descendants of the former Ottoman dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship.
Fall of the Empire
The fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure; the size of the Empire created difficulties in economically integrating its diverse regions. Some scholars argue the power of the Caliphate began waning by 1683 and without the acquisition of significant new wealth the Empire went into a slow decline Some scholars argue the power of the Caliphate began waning by 1683 and without the acquisition of significant new wealth the Empire went into a slow decline Also, the Empire's communication technology was not developed enough to reach all territories. In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century. As the human rights movement has brought awareness to the needs of the individual throughout the world the cultural rights movement has provoked attention to protect the rights of groups thumb| |Broken Liberty Istanbul Archaeology Museum Civil liberties are freedoms that protect the Individual from the Government. A parliamentary system, also known as parliamentarianism (and parliamentarism in American English) is a System of government in which The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 The rise of the Western notion of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the break-down of the Ottoman millet Secession (derived from the Latin term secessio is the act of withdrawing from an organization union or especially a political entity
Economy
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Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne (Adrianople) and Constantinople, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. Economic history of the Ottoman Empire covers the period 1299-1923 Economic history of the Ottoman Empire covers the period 1299-1923 This article covers the socio-political history of Ottoman Empire beginning from its establishment to the reformation efforts of Selim III. While the industrial revolution had swept through western Europe the Ottoman Empire was still relying mainly on medieval technologies [21] To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Constantinople and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts. The tolerance displayed by the Ottomans was welcomed by the immigrants. The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. [22] The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues as much as possible without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.
The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all of their contemporaries. [23] This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulema, which developed into a professional body. [23] The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen. [24] The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer When Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith, an economic power which extended over three continents. Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.
By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were prevalent and the Ottoman administrators could not have realized, within the social and political system they were living in, the dynamics and principles of the capitalist economy of the Modern Age. [25]
State
The state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a very simple system that had two main dimensions: the military administration and the civic administration. The Ottoman Empire developed a highly advanced organisation of state over the centuries The Topkapı Palace (Topkapı Sarayı or in Ottoman: طوبكابي بالاذيis a palace in Istanbul, Turkey, which was the official and The Ottoman Empire developed a highly advanced organisation of state over the centuries Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civic system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state had control over the clergy, like the Byzantine. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic
The "Ottoman dynasty" or, as an institution, "House of Osman" was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ( Turkish: Osmanlı Hanedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922 beginning with House of Osman is the name to the administrative structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, which is part of State organization of the Ottoman Empire, however directly linked [26] The Ottoman dynasty was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects, however the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkic" identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities. [27] On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, both failures, which is suggestive of a political system which for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. After the dissolution of the Empire, the new republic abolished the Caliphate and Sultanate and declared the Ottoman Dynasty as persona non grata of Turkey. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings Fifty years later, in 1974, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey granted descendants of the former dynasty the right to acquire Turkish citizenship. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi - TBMM, usually referred to simply as Meclis - "the Parliament" is the Unicameral The current head of the House of Osman is Ertuğrul Osman V, living in New York City. House of Osman is the name to the administrative structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, which is part of State organization of the Ottoman Empire, however directly linked Ertuğrul Osman Osmanoğlu, pretender to the title of Prince of the Ottoman Empire (full title: Devletli Necabetli Ertuğrul Osman Efendi Hazretleri, born The City of New York
The highest position in Islam, caliphate, was claimed by the sultan which was established as Ottoman Caliphate. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The Ottoman Caliphate was the self-declared " Caliphate " under the Ottoman Dynasty of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. Padishah, Padshah, Padeshah, Badishah or Badshah ( Persian پادشاه Pādeshāh) is a very prestigious The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. The Imperial Harem or Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. Valide Sultan (or Sultan valide) (literally Sultan's parent was the title held by the mother of a ruling Sultan in the Ottoman Empire. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a period of time the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". The Sultanate of Women ( Turkish: Kadınlar Saltanatı) was the near 130-year period during the 16th and 17th centuries when the women of the Imperial Harem New sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support amongst the ruling elite for a successor. Palace school was part of House of Ottoman system that is designated to educate (rise Ottoman Empire's governing elite The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Ottoman Turkish: Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials in accordance with Islamic tradition. "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlıca or tr ''Osmanlı Türkçesi'' Ottoman Turkish ota-Latn ''lisân-ı Osmânî'' is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. [28] The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia and/or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirmeh (Devşirme). A boarding school is a School where some or all pupils not only study but also live during term time with their fellow students and possibly teachers Enderun School ( Turkish: Enderun, Ottoman Turkish: Enderûn which meant "inner most" was a free- Boarding school for the Christian Rumelia or Rumeli ( Turkish: Rumeli ("Land of the Romans" from Rum: "Greek" "Roman" and El Devşirme or devshirme (derived from devşirme meaning "collection gathering" was the systematic collection of non-Muslim children [29]
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. Ottoman Porte (also Sublime Porte, High Porte, or in Ottoman Turkish, Bab-ı Ali) used to refer to the Divan (court The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan (after the 17th century its name become Porte). Dīvān or dīwān ( Persian دیوان was a high governmental body in a number of Islamic states or its chief official (see Diwan (title Ottoman Porte (also Sublime Porte, High Porte, or in Ottoman Turkish, Bab-ı Ali) used to refer to the Divan (court The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. Grand Vizier, in Turkish Sadr-ı Azam ( Sadrazam) or Serdar-ı Ekrem (in Ottoman Turkish: صدر اعظم or وزیر اعظم The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Grand Vizier, in Turkish Sadr-ı Azam ( Sadrazam) or Serdar-ı Ekrem (in Ottoman Turkish: صدر اعظم or وزیر اعظم Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans became withdrawn from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state. [23] Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 reversed the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, marking the onset of the Second Constitutional The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire. The Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire was the government structure added to the Ottoman governing structure during the Second Constitutional Era.
The rapidly expanding empire utilized loyal, skilled subjects to manage the Empire, whether Albanians, Phanariot Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Hungarians or others. } Albanians (Shqiptarët are an Ethnic group and a Nation, in the sense of sharing a common Albanian culture speaking the Albanian language Phanariotes, Phanariots, or Phanariote Greeks ( Greek:Φαναριώτες Romanian: Fanarioţi, Bulgarian:Фанариоти The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large Serbs ( Serbian: Срби Srbi) are a South Slavic people living in the Balkans and Central Europe, mainly in Serbia, The Bosniaks or Bosniacs (Bošnjak pl Bošnjaci bɔ'ʃɲaːt͡si are a South Slavic people living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina ("Bosnia" Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. The incorporation of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims, and Jews revolutionized its administrative system. [30] This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly [27]
The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. A tughra ( طغراء;) is a calligraphic seal or Signature of an Ottoman sultan that was affixed to all official Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The prayer/statement “ever victorious” was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy. Calligraphy (from Greek kallos "beauty" + graphẽ "writing" is the art of writing (Mediavilla 1996 17
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One of the successes of the social structure of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied populations through an organization named as millets. There is considerable controversy regarding social structure in the Ottoman Empire. There is considerable controversy regarding social structure in the Ottoman Empire. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years The Ottoman rule of Armenia or Ottoman Armenia begins with the initial accession of Mehmed II, and the Ottoman support to initiate the Armenian Greeks in Turkey (Rumlar are Greek -speaking Eastern Orthodox Christians who mostly live in Istanbul and on the two The rise of the Western notion of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the break-down of the Ottoman millet Ottomanism ( Osmanlılık or Osmanlıcılık) was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Life in the Ottoman Empire was a mixture of western and eastern life Ottoman court or the culture that evolved around the court of the Ottoman Empire was known as the "Ottoman Way". Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. Devşirme or devshirme (derived from devşirme meaning "collection gathering" was the systematic collection of non-Muslim children There is considerable controversy regarding social structure in the Ottoman Empire. The Millets were the major religious groups that were allowed to establish their own communities under Ottoman rule. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. The Millets were established by retaining their own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Plurality was the key to the longevity of the Empire. As early as the reign of Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to Phanariot Greeks, and Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory. Phanariotes, Phanariots, or Phanariote Greeks ( Greek:Φαναριώτες Romanian: Fanarioţi, Bulgarian:Фанариоти Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences proved to be one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions but this non-assimilative policy became a weakness after the rise of nationalism. The rise of the Western notion of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the break-down of the Ottoman millet The dissolution of the Empire based on ethnic differentiation (balkanization) brought the final end which the failed Ottomanism among the citizens and participatory politics of the first or the constitutional Era had successfully addressed. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922 began with the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution and ended with the partitioning of the Empire Balkanization is a geopolitical term originally used to describe the process of fragmentation or division of a region or state into smaller regions or states that are often Ottomanism ( Osmanlılık or Osmanlıcılık) was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of Constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî The Second Constitutional Era (ايکنجى مشروطيت دورى İkinci Meşrûtiyyet Devri) of the Ottoman Empire began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid
Lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire was a mixture of western and eastern life. Life in the Ottoman Empire was a mixture of western and eastern life One unique characteristic of Ottoman life style was it was very fragmented. The millet concept generated this fragmentation and enabled many to coexist in a mosaic of cultures. Art History Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic The Capital of the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul also had a unique culture, mainly because prior to Ottoman rule it had been the seat of both the Roman and Byzantine Empires. Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey The life style in the Ottoman court in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences. Ottoman court or the culture that evolved around the court of the Ottoman Empire was known as the "Ottoman Way". The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The culture that evolved around the Ottoman court was known as the Ottoman Way, which was epitomized with the Topkapı Palace. The Topkapı Palace (Topkapı Sarayı or in Ottoman: طوبكابي بالاذيis a palace in Istanbul, Turkey, which was the official and There were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Dimashq, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Makkah and Algiers with their own small versions of Ottoman Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. TemplateInfobox City for more fields--> Sarajevo is the Capital city and largest urban center of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Skopje (Скопје; Shkup or Shkupi is the Capital and largest city in the Republic of Macedonia, with more than a quarter of the population Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest The seraglio, which were the non imperial places, in the context of the Turkish fashion, became the subject of works of art, where non imperial prince or referring to other grand houses built around courtyards. A seraglio (also serraglio) is the sequestered living quarters used by wives and Concubines in a Turkish household from an Italian variant of
The slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a part of Ottoman society. Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. [31] As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Empire. [32] During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various Sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the slave trade but, since slavery did have centuries of religious backing and sanction, they could never directly abolish the institution outright — as had gradually happened in Western Europe and the Americas. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history
- See also: Devshirmeh
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The Ottoman Empire had filled roughly the territories around the Mediterranean Sea and Black sea, while adopting their traditions, art and institutions of cultures in these regions; and adding new dimensions to them. Devşirme or devshirme (derived from devşirme meaning "collection gathering" was the systematic collection of non-Muslim children The culture of the Ottoman Empire evolved over several centuries as the ruling administration of the Turks absorbed adapted and modified the cultures of conquered The culture of the Ottoman Empire evolved over several centuries as the ruling administration of the Turks absorbed adapted and modified the cultures of conquered Ottoman architecture is the Architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlıca or tr ''Osmanlı Türkçesi'' Ottoman Turkish ota-Latn ''lisân-ı Osmânî'' is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the Ottoman classical music ( Klâsik Türk Mûsikîsi, Sanat Mûsikîsi, Saray Mûsikîsi) developed in palaces mosques and Mevlevi Ottoman cuisine is the cuisine of the Ottoman Empire and its successors in Anatolia, the Balkans, and much of the Middle East. This article deals with the Ottoman Divan poetry tradition For the tradition of folk poetry in the Ottoman Empire see Turkish folk literature. Roughly speaking the prose of the Ottoman Empire can be divided along the lines of two broad periods early Ottoman prose written prior to the 19th century CE and exclusively Ottoman Miniature was an art form in the Ottoman Empire, which can be linked but can not be reduced to the Arab - Persian miniature tradition as well as Yağlı güreş (In English ˈjɑːlə ˈgurεʃ in Turkish ˈjɑːlɯ ˈɟyrεʃ is the Turkish national Sport. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define, except for those of the regional centers and capital. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of myriad ethnic and religious groups. This multicultural perspective of "millets" was reflected in the Ottoman State's multi-cultural and multi-religious policies. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders absorbed some of the culture of the conquered regions. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. NOTICE TO WOULD-BE ROMEOS ************** When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was very apparent.
"Ottoman architecture" was influenced by Persian Architecture, Byzantine Greek, and Islamic architecture. The Selimiye Mosque ( Turkish: Selimiye Camii) is a Mosque in the city of Edirne, Turkey. Koca Mi‘mār Sinān Āġā ( Ottoman Turkish: خوجه معمار سنان آغا ( April 15, 1489 - April 09, Selim I ( Ottoman: سليم الأول, Turkish: ISelim; also known as "the Grim" or "the Brave" Yavuz in Suleiman I (سليمان Sulaymān, Süleyman almost always Kanuni Sultan Süleyman) ( 6 November 1494 5/ 6 September 1566 Selim II ( Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى Selīm-i sānī, Turkish: II Murad III ( Ottoman Turkish: مراد ثالث Murād-i sālis, Turkish: III Ottoman architecture is the Architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries Architecture in " Greater Iran " has a continuous history from at least 5000BCE to the present with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Syria Byzantine architecture is the Architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day influencing the design and construction The Ottoman architecture (as well as Timurid and Seljuq) are a continuation of the pre-Islamic Persian Sassanid architecture. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire For instance, the dome covered square, which had been a dominant form in Sassanid became the nucleus of all Ottoman architecture. [33][34] During the Rise period the early or first Ottoman architecture period, the Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The rise of the Ottoman Empire is the period from the late thirteenth century to 1453 The growth period of the Empire become the classical period of architecture, which Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the growth of the Ottoman Empire (also known as the " Pax Ottomana " the Ottoman Empire expanded southwestwards into North Africa During the years of the Stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style however. Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire ( 1683 - 1827) was a period after the territorial expansion of the Empire reached its maximum
During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled. The Tulip period or Tulip era ( Ottoman Turkish: لاله دورى, Turkish: Lâle Devri) is the traditional name for a period Baroque art redirects here Please disambiguate such links to Baroque painting, Baroque sculpture, etc Rococo is a style of 18th century French art and Interior design. The Empire Style, sometimes considered the second phase of Neoclassicism, is an early-19th-century Design movement in Architecture, Furniture Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle around the mosque. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger The mosque was integral to society, city planning and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs. A soup kitchen or a bread line is a place where Food is offered to the Poor and Homeless for free or at a reasonably low Price A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for The Turkish bath (hamam from حمّام) is the Middle Eastern variant of a steam bath, which can be categorized as a wet relative of the For the New York prison see The Tombs. A Tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead.
Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from İstanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The Dolmabahçe Palace (Dolmabahçe Sarayı in Istanbul, Turkey, located at the European side of the Bosphorus, served as the main administrative Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Edirne (anc Hadrianopolis; Greek Adrianople; Slavic/Bulgarian Одрин, see also its other names) is a city in Thrace, the westernmost The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artisans enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art. Byzantine art is the term commonly used to describe the artistic products of the Byzantine Empire from about the 4th century until the Fall of Constantinople Chinese art ( Chinese: 中國藝術/中国艺术 has varied throughout its ancient history, divided into periods by the ruling Dynasties of China and changing [35]
"Ottoman Turkish language" was a variety of Turkish, highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlıca or tr ''Osmanlı Türkçesi'' Ottoman Turkish ota-Latn ''lisân-ı Osmânî'' is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the Ottomans had three influential languages; Turkish, Persian, Arabic but they did not have a parallel status. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy and, in particular, within the Ottoman court in later times, a version of Turkish was spoken, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary. If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of virtually any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language which was essentially incomprehensible to any Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both. The two varieties of the language became extremely differentiated and this resulted in a low literacy rate among the general public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century). Consequently, ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (arzıhâlcis) in order to be able to communicate with the government. The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e. Mahalle is an Arabic word adopted into Turkish which usually translates into "neighborhood" g. Jews, Greeks, Armenians etc. ). In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman or Persian if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages, especially among the Christian Levantine communities. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the The elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans, but, since they were still interested in their two other official languages, they kept these in use as well. Usage of these came to be limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language, while Arabic was used solely for religious rites. At this time many famous Persian poets emerged.
"Ottoman classical music" was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Ottoman classical music ( Klâsik Türk Mûsikîsi, Sanat Mûsikîsi, Saray Mûsikîsi) developed in palaces mosques and Mevlevi Selim III ( Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) ( December 24, 1761 &ndash July 28/29 Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Byzantine music is the music of the Byzantine Empire composed to Greek texts as ceremonial festival or church music Arabic music or Arab music ( Arabic: موسيقى عربية;) includes several genres and styles of Music ranging from Arabic classical Persian traditional music (also known as Iranian traditional music, Musiqi-e Sonati-e Irani, also Persian classical music or Iranian classical music Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes. Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement symmetry" is the variation of the length and accentuation of In Ottoman classical music, usul is an underlying Rhythmic cycle that complements the melodic rhythm and sometimes helps shape the overall structure of a Meter or metre is a concept related to an underlying division of time characteristic of western music In Music, a melody (from Greek μελῳδία - melōidía, "singing chanting" also tune, voice, or See also List of Makams, Maqam In Turkish classical music, Mevlevi music and some Mosque music a system of Melody types called makam In Music, a scale is an ordered series of Musical intervals which along with the key or tonic, define the pitches However mode The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and — later in the tradition — Western instruments (the violin and the piano). A musical instrument is a device constructed or modified for the purpose of making Music. The saz (from Persian:) is a family of Plucked string instruments popular in Iran, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia and the The bağlama is a stringed Musical instrument shared by various Cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean, Near East, and Central A kemenche ( Turkish: kemençe Laz: Ç'ilili(ჭილილი Greek: κεμεντζές is a bottle-shaped 3-stringed type of Rebec or The oud ( عود ʿūd, plural أعواد, a‘wād; kaban; Persian: بربط barbat; ud The term tanbūr ( Persian: تنبور) can refer to various long-necked Fretted Lutes originating in the Middle East See also Kanun (disambiguation. Qanun ( قانون) refers to laws promulgated by Muslim sovereigns in particular the Ottoman Sultans The ney ( Persian: نی; Arabic: ناي; also nai, nye, nay, The violin is a bowed String instrument with four strings usually tuned in Perfect fifths It is the smallest and highest-pitched member The piano is a Musical instrument played by means of a keyboard that produces sound by striking steel strings with Felt covered hammers Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of Folk music were created. Folk music can have a number of different meanings including Traditional music: The original meaning of the term "folk music" was synonymous The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music. Ottoman military bands are thought to be the oldest variety of military Marching band in the world Typically nomadic the Roma people have long acted as wandering entertainers and tradesmen Belly dance is a Western term for a traditional Middle Eastern Dance form Turkish folk music ( Türk Halk Müziği) has combined the distinct cultural values of all those civilisations which have lived in Anatolia and the Ottoman
The "Ottoman cuisine" refers to the cuisine of the capital — Constantinople, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. Ottoman cuisine is the cuisine of the Ottoman Empire and its successors in Anatolia, the Balkans, and much of the Middle East. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population. Ramadan or Ramazan ( Arabic: رمضان Ramaḍān) is a Muslim religious observance that takes place during the ninth month of the Islamic A yalı ( Turkish: yalı, from Greek yiáli γιαλή (mod γιαλός) literally "seashore beach" Pasha or pacha, formerly bashaw, (paşa پاشا ( Persian: پاشا ( Armenian: Փաշա was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire Today, the Ottoman cuisine lives in the Balkans, Anatolia and the Middle East; i. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. e. in regions that are common heirs to what was once the Ottoman life-style, and their cuisines offer abundant circumstantial evidence of this fact. [36] Besides, one should not forget that it is typical of any great cuisine in the world to be based on local varieties and on mutual exchange and enrichment among them, but at the same time to be homogenized and harmonized by a metropolitan tradition of refined taste. [36]
Religion
Before adopting Islam — a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia — the Turkic peoples practised a variety of shamanism. Note The following is concerned with Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire it does not discuss the role of importance of and characteristics of Islam in For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes — including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans — gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century.
The Ottoman Empire was, in principle, tolerant towards Christians and Jews (the "Ahl Al-Kitab", or "People of the Book", according to the Qu'ran) but not towards the polytheists, in accordance with the Sharia law. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Such tolerance was subject to a non-Muslim tax, the Jizya. Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic
Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects. A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish [37],[38]
The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed the local Christians to stay in Constantinople (Istanbul) after conquering the city in 1453, and to retain their institutions such as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey History Early history Christianity in Byzantium existed from the time of the Twelve Apostles, but it was in the year 330 that the Roman Emperor In 1461 Sultan Mehmed II established the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Armenian Patriarch of Istanbul is today head of one of the smallest Patriarchates of the Oriental Orthodox Church but has exerted a very significant political Previously, the Byzantines considered the Armenian Church as heretical and thus did not allow them to build churches inside the walls of Constantinople. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief The Walls of Constantinople are a series of stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey) since its In 1492, when the Muslims and Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain during the Spanish Inquisition, the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II sent his fleet under Kemal Reis to save them and granted the refugees the right to settle in the Ottoman Empire. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain Bayezid II (1447/48 May 26, 1512) ( Ottoman Turkish: بايزيد ثانى Bāyezīd-i sānī, Turkish: II Kemal Reis (c 1451 &ndash 1511 was a Turkish Privateer and Ottoman Admiral.
The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church was largely peaceful, and recurrent oppressive measures taken against the Greek church were a deviation from generally established practice. History Early history Christianity in Byzantium existed from the time of the Twelve Apostles, but it was in the year 330 that the Roman Emperor The church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with Ottomanism. The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829 also commonly known as the Greek Revolution (Ελληνική Επανάσταση Elliniki Epanastasi; Ottoman A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Ottomanism ( Osmanlılık or Osmanlıcılık) was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Other Orthodox churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate; until Sultan Abdülaziz established the Bulgarian Exarchate in 1870 and reinstated the autonomy of the Bulgarian Church. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church (Българска православна църква Bălgarska pravoslavna cărkva) is an Autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church Abdülaziz ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد العزيز ( February 9, 1830 June 4 1876) was the 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman The Bulgarian Exarchate (Българска екзархия Bylgarska ekzarkhia) was the official name of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church before its Autocephaly
Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well. Hakham Bashi ( Turkish: Hahambaşı حاخامباشی is the Turkish name for the Chief Rabbi of the nation Chief Rabbi is a title given in several countries to the recognized religious leader of that country's Jewish community or to a rabbinic leader appointed by the local secular The Armenian Apostolic Church (Հայաստանեայց Առաքելական Եկեղեցի Hayasdaneaytz Arakelagan A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight
Law
- Further information: Mecelle
Ottoman legal system accepted the Religious law over its subjects. The Mecelle code (also transliterated Mejelle, Majalla, Medjelle, or Meğelle) was the Civil code of the Ottoman Empire In some Religions law can be thought of as the ordering principle of Reality; Knowledge as revealed by God defining and governing all human affairs The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority. [39] Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority develop the needs of the local millet. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. [39] The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups. [39] The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Kanun, i. e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yasa and Töre which were developed in the pre-Islamic era. The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system.
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive in nature: for instance, the Islamic courts — which were the Empire's primary courts — could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them so as to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'ān; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from previous precedents; and local customs. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic In Religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has encountered the Supernatural or the divine and serves as an intermediary IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Ijmā (إجماع is an Arabic term referring ideally to the Consensus of the Ummah (the community of Muslims, or followers of Islam Consensus has two common meanings One is a general agreement among the members of a given group or Community, each of which exercises some discretion in Ummah (أمة is an Arabic word meaning Community or Nation. It is commonly used to mean either the collective nation of states, or (in the In Sunni Islamic jurisprudence,the qiyas ( Arabic قياس is the process of analogical reasoning in which the teachings of the Quran are compared Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Constantinople and Bursa.
Tanzimat reforms, had a drastic effect on the law system. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 In 1877, the civil law (excepting family law) was codified in the Mecelle code. Private law (Civil law is that part of a Legal system that involves relationships between individuals Family law is an area of the Law that deals with family-related issues and Domestic relations including but not limited to the nature of The Mecelle code (also transliterated Mejelle, Majalla, Medjelle, or Meğelle) was the Civil code of the Ottoman Empire Later codifications covered commercial law, penal law and civil procedure. Commercial law (sometimes known as business law) is the body of Law which governs Business and commercial transactions In the most general sense penal is the body of laws that are enforced by the State in its own name and impose penalties for their violation as opposed to civil law that seeks Civil procedure is the body of law that sets out the process that Courts will follow when hearing cases of a civil nature (a " Civil action " as opposed to
Military
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Military
of the Ottoman Empire |
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| Sipahi - Akinci - Timariot - Janissary - Nizam-ı Cedid |
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| Navy - Air Force | ||
| Conflicts: | Europe - Russian - Serbian - Near East - Sieges and Landings | |
| See also: | Reform - Naval treaties - Kaptan Pashas | |
Ottoman Army
The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military of the Ottoman Empire was divided in three organizational structures the Army Navy and Air Force Sipahi ( Ottoman Turkish: ota سپاهی also transliterated as Spahi, Sepahi, and Spakh; traditionally rendered as Spahia Akıncı (akıncı literally "raider" plural akıncılar) were irregular Light cavalry of the Ottoman empire's military. A timariot (or timar holder timarlı in Turkish) was an irregular Cavalryman that served the Ottoman Sultan The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed The Nizam-ı Cedid (from Arabic َAl-Niẓām Al-Jadīd via Persian Nizām-e Jadīd - "New Order" was a series of reforms carried See also History of the Turkish Navy The Ottoman Navy was established in the early 14th century The Ottoman Air Force was founded in June 1909 making it one of the first combat aviation organizations in the world The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older European The Russo-Turkish wars were a series of wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire during the 16th 17th 18th 19th and 20th centuries The Serbian-Turkish wars were a series of armed conflicts and wars fought between the Serbia and the Ottoman Empire. The following is an List of Ottoman sieges and landings from the 14th century to World War I. When Selim III came to the throne in 1789 an ambitious effort of military reform was launched geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. There were 21 naval collaboration treaties of the Ottoman Empire Below is the list of Ottoman Kaptan Pashas between 1401 and 1867. The military of the Ottoman Empire was divided in three organizational structures the Army Navy and Air Force The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older European The Russo-Turkish wars were a series of wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire during the 16th 17th 18th 19th and 20th centuries Osman I (1258 Sogut, Anatolia, Turkey &ndash1326 Sogut) Ottoman: عثمان بن أرطغرل Turkish: Osman The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire.
The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica Gentile Bellini (c 1429 &ndash February 23, 1507) was an Italian painter Sipahi ( Ottoman Turkish: ota سپاهی also transliterated as Spahi, Sepahi, and Spakh; traditionally rendered as Spahia The main corps of the Ottoman Army included:
- Janissary: Infantry units recruited at a very young age from the non-Muslim ethnic groups of the Empire and raised as Muslim Turkish warriors; also forming the Sultan's household troops and bodyguard. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists Most of the recruits were Christian Balkans. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth
- Sipahi: Elite cavalry knights who were granted tımars (fiefs) throughout the Empire's lands. Sipahi ( Ottoman Turkish: ota سپاهی also transliterated as Spahi, Sepahi, and Spakh; traditionally rendered as Spahia Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. Timar: Land granted by the Ottoman Sultans between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries with an annual value of less than 20 000 akces Under the system of Feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud, feoff, or fee, often consisted of inheritable lands or revenue-producing Their alternative name was Tîmârlı Sipahi (Enfiefed Knight).
- Akıncı: Frontline cavalry units of the Ottoman Army which raided and scouted the border areas and outposts. Akıncı (akıncı literally "raider" plural akıncılar) were irregular Light cavalry of the Ottoman empire's military. The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on
- Mehterân: Ottoman Army Band which played martial tunes during military campaigns. Ottoman military bands are thought to be the oldest variety of military Marching band in the world The mehterân was usually associated with the Janissary corps. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed
The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. A musket is a muzzle -loaded Smoothbore Long gun, which is intended to be fired from the shoulder The Ottoman cavalry used bows and short swords and often applied nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire; such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire
Starting from the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 and the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, the Ottoman army quickly advanced towards central Europe, capturing Hungary with the Battle of Mohács in 1526 and twice laying siege to Vienna, in 1529 and 1683. This page is about the Battle of Kosovo of 1389; for other battles see Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The Battle of Mohács (mohácsi csata or mohácsi vész/Bane of Mohács; Schlacht bei Mohács Mohačka bitka Мохачка битка/Mohačka bitka Bitka pri Moháči Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. The Siege of Vienna in 1529, as distinct from the Battle of Vienna in 1683, was the first attempt of the Muslim Ottoman Empire, led by The Battle of Vienna ( German: Schlacht am Kahlenberg, Polish: Bitwa pod Wiedniem or Odsiecz Wiedeńska, Turkish: İkinci
The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army, which he named as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). Mahmud II ( Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) ( July 20, 1785 July 1, 1839 The Nizam-ı Cedid (from Arabic َAl-Niẓām Al-Jadīd via Persian Nizām-e Jadīd - "New Order" was a series of reforms carried The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries.
Ottoman Navy
The conquest of İmralı Island in the Sea of Marmara in 1308 marked the first Ottoman naval victory (for a timeline of the naval actions of the Ottoman fleet, see the History of the Turkish Navy). See also History of the Turkish Navy The Ottoman Navy was established in the early 14th century Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha ( Turkish: Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa or Hızır Hayreddin Paşa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the The naval Battle of Zonchio (also known as the Battle of Sapienza or the First Battle of Lepanto) took place on four separate days August 12 20 22 and 25 İmralı is a small Turkish island located in the south of the Sea of Marmara, west of Armutlu-Bozburun peninsula within Bursa Province. The Sea of Marmara ( Turkish: Marmara Denizi, Greek: Θάλασσα του Μαρμαρά or Προποντίς, Bulgarian The Turkish Navy was once the largest sea power in the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean In 1321 the Ottoman fleet made its first landings on Thrace in southeastern Europe, and vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe The Ottoman navy was one of the first to use cannons, and the Battle of Zonchio in 1499 went down in history as the first naval battle where cannons were used on ships. | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural The naval Battle of Zonchio (also known as the Battle of Sapienza or the First Battle of Lepanto) took place on four separate days August 12 20 22 and 25 It was also the Ottoman navy which initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Battle of Preveza in 1538 and the Battle of Djerba in 1560 marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean Sea. The naval Battle of Preveza took place on 28 September 1538 near Preveza in northwestern Greece between an Ottoman fleet and The Ottomans also confronted the Portuguese forces based in Goa at the Indian Ocean in numerous battles between 1538 and 1566. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Goa ( Konkani: गोंय /ɡɔ̃j/ is India 's smallest state in terms of area and the fourth smallest in terms of population. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface In 1553, the Ottoman admiral Salih Reis conquered Morocco and the lands of North Africa beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, extending Ottoman territory into the Atlantic Ocean. Salih Reis (1488 ca - 1568 was a Turkish Privateer and Ottoman Admiral. The Strait of Gibraltar ( Arabic: مضيق جبل طارق Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar) is the Strait that connects the Atlantic In 1566 the Sultan of Aceh asked for support against the Portuguese and declared allegiance to the Ottoman Empire, which sent its Indian Ocean fleet under Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis to Sumatra. See also Sultanate of Aceh Aceh (ʔaˈtɕɛh generally anglicized as ˈɑːtʃeɪ is a special territory ( daerah istimewa) of Indonesia Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis was an Ottoman admiral who is best known for commanding the Ottoman naval expedition to Sumatra in Indonesia ( 1568 - Sumatra (also spelled Sumatera) is the sixth largest island in the world (approximately 470000 km² and is the largest island entirely in Indonesia (two The fleet landed at Aceh in 1569, and the event marked the easternmost Ottoman territorial expansion. In 1585 the Ottoman admiral Murat Reis captured Lanzarote[40] of the Canary Islands. Murat Reis the Elder (Koca Murat Reis was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral Lanzarote, a Spanish Island, is the easternmost of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 125 km off the coast of Africa The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish In 1617 the Ottoman fleet captured Madeira[40] in the Atlantic Ocean, before raiding Sussex, Plymouth, Devon, Hartland Point, Cornwall and the other counties of western England in August 1625. History See also History of Madeira Pre-Portuguese times Pliny mentions certain Purple Islands the position of which with reference to the Sussex is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. Plymouth ( is a city and unitary authority area on the coast of Devon, England about south west of London. Devon is a large county in the South West of England. The county is also referred to as Devonshire, but that is an entirely unofficial name Hartland Point is a high rocky outcrop of land on the northwestern tip of the Devon coast in England. Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland [40] In 1627 Ottoman naval ships, accompanied by corsairs from the Barbary Coast, raided the Shetland Islands, Faroe Islands, Denmark, Norway and Iceland. Shetland (formerly spelled Zetland, from etland; Old Norse non Hjaltland; Sealtainn is an Archipelago off the northeast coast of The Faroe Islands or Faeroe Islands or simply Faroe(s or Faeroes (Føroyar meaning " Sheep Islands" Færøerne Old Norse The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( [40] Between 1627 and 1631 the same Ottoman force also raided the coasts of Ireland and Sweden. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. [40] In 1655 a force of 40 Ottoman ships captured the Isle of Lundy in the Bristol Channel, which served as the main base for Ottoman naval and privateering operations in the North Atlantic until 1660, when Ottoman ships appeared off the eastern coasts of North America, particularly being sighted at the British colonies like Newfoundland and Virginia. Lundy is the largest island in the Bristol Channel, lying off the coast of Devon, England, approximately one third of the distance across the The Bristol Channel ( Môr Hafren) is a major inlet in the island of Great Britain, separating South Wales from Devon and Somerset Newfoundland and Labrador (ˈnuːfɨn(dlənd ən(d ˈlæbrəˌdɔr (Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador is a province of Canada, the tenth and latest to join the Confederation The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state [40] The overseas territorial acquisitions of the Ottoman Navy further expanded the extent of the Ottoman sphere of influence on distant lands in both the Indian and Atlantic oceans, such as the addition of Aceh (1569) as a vassal state to the Ottoman Empire, and temporary occupations like those of Lanzarote (1585), Madeira (1617), Vestmannaeyjar (1627) and Lundy (1655–1660). See also History of the Turkish Navy The Ottoman Navy was established in the early 14th century The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis was an Ottoman admiral who is best known for commanding the Ottoman naval expedition to Sumatra in Indonesia ( 1568 - Lanzarote, a Spanish Island, is the easternmost of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 125 km off the coast of Africa History See also History of Madeira Pre-Portuguese times Pliny mentions certain Purple Islands the position of which with reference to the Lundy is the largest island in the Bristol Channel, lying off the coast of Devon, England, approximately one third of the distance across the [40]
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Following defeat against the combined British-French-Russian navies at the Battle of Navarino in 1827, and the subsequent loss of Algeria (1830) and Greece (1832), Ottoman naval power, and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories declined. The naval Battle of Navarino was fought on 20 October 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821&ndash32 in Navarino Bay, on the west Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the third largest fleet after that of Britain and France with 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships. Abdülaziz ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد العزيز ( February 9, 1830 June 4 1876) was the 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman A battleship is a large heavily armored Warship with a main battery consisting of the largest Calibre of Guns Battleships were The shipyard at Barrow, United Kingdom built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire. A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability [41] The submarine Abdul Hamid achieved fame as the world’s first to fire a torpedo underwater. [42] But the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet strength. Sultan Abdülhamid II (reigned 1876–1908) distrusted the navy, when the admirals supported the reformist Midhat Pasha and the First Ottoman Parliament of 1876. Abdülhamid II His Imperial Majesty Sultan of the Ottoman Empire ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, İkinci Abdülhamit MidhatPashaVanityFairjpg|thumb|Mithat Pasha on the cover of Vanity Fair, June 30, 1877. The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of Constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî Claiming that the large and expensive navy was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), he locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 had its origins in a rise in nationalism in the Balkans as well as in the Russian goal of recovering territorial losses it had suffered The Golden Horn ( Turkish: Haliç or Altın Boynuz, Greek: Χρυσόν Κέρας – Chrysón Kéras is an inlet of the
Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress which effectively took control of the country sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. See also History of the Turkish Navy The Ottoman Navy was established in the early 14th century The Golden Horn ( Turkish: Haliç or Altın Boynuz, Greek: Χρυσόν Κέρας – Chrysón Kéras is an inlet of the Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 reversed the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, marking the onset of the Second Constitutional The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP (İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti initially a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" (İttihad-ı Osmanî Cemiyeti The poor condition of the fleet during the Ottoman Naval Parade of 1910 saddened every Turk who saw it, and the Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in order to purchase new ships through public donations. Those who made donations received different types of medals according to the size of their contributions. With this public money, the Ottoman government ordered large battleships like Sultan Osman I and Reşadiye, but despite the payment for both ships, the United Kingdom confiscated them at the outbreak of World War I and renamed them as HMS Agincourt and HMS Erin. A battleship is a large heavily armored Warship with a main battery consisting of the largest Calibre of Guns Battleships were Design Agincourt was single-class vessel laid down by Armstrongs at Newcastle upon Tyne as the Brazilian Rio de Janeiro Background and construction After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 Sultan Abdulhamid II withdrew the Ottoman Navy from use and left the ships The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All This caused some ill-feeling towards Britain among the Ottoman public, and the German Empire took advantage of the situation by sending the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim and light cruiser Midilli which entered service in the Ottoman fleet. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Battlecruisers were large Warships in the first half of the 20th century that were first introduced by the British Royal Navy. The pursuit of Goeben and Breslau See also Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau In 1912 the German navy's Mittelmeerdivision (Mediterranean A light cruiser is a Warship. The term is a shortening of the phrase "light Armoured cruiser " describing a small ship that carried armour in the same way Service history In 1912 Breslau was attached to the German Mittelmeerdivision (Mediterranean Division along with the Battlecruiser Goeben This event significantly contributed to the decision of supporting Germany in the First World War, with whom the Ottomans sided. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
Ottoman Air Force
The Ottoman Air Force was founded in June 1909, making it one of the first combat aviation organizations in the world. There were 21 naval collaboration treaties of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Air Force was founded in June 1909 making it one of the first combat aviation organizations in the world Its formation came about after the Ottoman Empire sent two Turkish pilots to the International Aviation Conference in Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city After witnessing the growing importance of an air combat support branch, the Ottoman government decided to organize its own military aviation program. For this purpose, officers were sent to Europe by the end of 1910 to participate in the study of combat flight. However, because of bad living conditions, the student program was aborted and the trainees returned to Turkey in early 1911. Although left without any governmental guidelines for establishing an air force, the Ottoman Minister of Defence of the time, Mahmut Şevket Paşa, continued to encourage the idea of a military aviation program and sent officers Fesa and Yusuf Kenan, who achieved the highest maneuvering points in a piloting test conducted in 1911, to France for receiving a more satisfactory flight education. In late 1911 Süreyya Ilmen was instructed with founding the Havacılık Komisyonu (Aviation Commission) bound to the Harbiye Bakanlığı Fen Kıtaları Müstahkem Genel Müfettişliği (War Ministry Science Detachment General Inspectorship). On February 21, 1912, Fesa and Yusuf Kenan completed their flight education and returned home with the 780th and 797th French aviation diplomas. Events 362 - Athanasius returns to Alexandria. 1245 - Thomas, the first known Bishop of Finland Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting In the same year, eight more Turkish officers were sent to France for flight education. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Hava Okulu (Air Academy) in Constantinople on July 3, 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting The founding of the Air Academy quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Armed Forces. The Turkish Armed Forces (TAF (Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri or TSK consist of the Army, the Navy (including naval aviation and naval infantry and the Air Force In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was activated by the Air Academy and the first separate Reconnaissance division was established by the Air Force.
Because of the lack of experience of the Turkish pilots, the first stage (1912) of the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) ended with the loss of several aircraft. The Balkan Wars were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League ( Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece However, the second stage (1913) was marked with great success since the pilots had become more battle-hardened. Many recruits joined the Air Academy following a surge of Turkish nationalism during the war.
With the end of the Balkan Wars a modernization process started and new planes were purchased. In June 1914 a new military academy, Deniz Hava Okulu (Naval Aviation Academy) was founded, also in Constantinople. Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly, but in 1915 some German officers came to the Ottoman Empire and some Turkish officers went to Germany for flight education. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
The Ottoman Air Force fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Galicia (Галичина ( Halychyna) Galicja is a historical region in East Central Europe, currently divided between Poland and Ukraine, The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya Efforts were made to reorganize the Ottoman Air Force, but this ended in 1918 with the end of World War I and the occupation of Constantinople. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey
Endnotes
- ^ The Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War The abolishment of the Ottoman Sultanate in November 1, 1922 did not end the Ottoman State, but only the Ottoman dynasty. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (July 24, 1923). The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning It recognized the new "Ankara government", and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Istanbul-based government was practically headless after the sultan left the capital. The TBMM declared the successor state to be the "Republic of Turkey" (October 29, 1923), less than a month after its international recognition as a state. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi - TBMM, usually referred to simply as Meclis - "the Parliament" is the Unicameral Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Kinross, 23
- ^ (Turkish) Sultan Osman I, Turkish Ministry of Culture website
- ^ Savory, R. M. (1960). "The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907-30/1501-24)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 23 (1): 91-105.
- ^ Hess, Andrew C. (January 1973). "The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War". International Journal of Middle East Studies 4 (1): 55-76.
- ^ Imber, 50.
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 206
- ^ Mansel, 61
- ^ Imber, 53.
- ^ Kinross, 272.
- ^ Kinross, 272.
- ^ Madden, Thomas (2005). Crusades The Illustrated History. Ann Arbor: University of Michiga P, p. 195.
- ^ Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution, p. 89
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 281
- ^ Leslie P. Peirce, The imperial harem: women and sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire and Morality tales: law and gender in the Ottoman court of Aintab.
- ^ Richard G. (EDT) Hovannisian "The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times" page 198
- ^ Jastrow, Morris, The War and the Bagdad Railroad (1917) ASIN B0006D8OSQ
- ^ New York Times Dispatch. Morris Jastrow Jr Ph D ( August 13, 1861 – June 22, 1921) was an American Orientalist, the son of Marcus (Morris The Amazon Standard Identification Number ( ASIN) is a unique identification number assigned by Amazon Lord Bryce's report on Armenian atrocities an appalling catalogue of outrage and massacre. The New York Times, October 8, 1916.
- ^ Erik Jan Zürcher, "Between Death and Desertion. The Experience of the Ottoman Soldier in World War I", Turcica 28 (1996), pp. 235-258. See p. 241.
- ^ Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U. P. 1970, p. 209 ISBN 0197135617
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U. P. 1970, p. 217 ISBN 0197135617
- ^ a b c Antony Black (2001), "The state of the House of Osman (devlet-ı al-ı Osman)" in The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present, p. 199
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert (1971), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, p. 120
- ^ Halil inalcik, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U. P. 1970, p. 218 ISBN 0197135617
- ^ Antony Black, ibid, page 197
- ^ a b Donald Quataert, 2
- ^ Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the civilization of the Ottoman Empire, p151
- ^ Kemal H Karpat, Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis, p204
- ^ The History of Turkish-Jewish Relations
- ^ Supply of Slaves
- ^ Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery
- ^ Von Gabriel Piterberg, An Ottoman Tragedy: History and Historiography at Play, pp. Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years 98-103, [1]
- ^ Von Helen Gardner, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, Gardner's Art Through the Ages,p. 263, ISBN 0155037587,[2]
- ^ Eli Shah. The Ottoman Artistic Legacy
- ^ a b Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London and New York, p. 52
- ^ "The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula", Sean Krummerich, Loyola University New Orleans, The Student Historical Journal, volume 30 (1998–99
- ^ Turkish Toleration, The American Forum for Global Education
- ^ a b c Lauren A. Loyola University New Orleans is a private, Co-educational and Jesuit university located in New Orleans. Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900", pp109–110
- ^ the standard - Petition created for submarine name
- ^ Submarine Heritage Centre - History: BARROW SHIPYARD AND SUBMARINES
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- This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
- Leiner, Frederick C. The end of Barbary terror : America's 1815 war against the pirates of North Africa / by Frederick C. Leiner. New York : Oxford University Press, 2006.
See also
External links
In English
- The Ottoman Empire: Resources - University of Michigan
- The Ottoman Empire: Information
- The Ottoman Empire: A Chronogical Outline
- The Ottoman Empire: NAVAL MAPS
- The Ottoman Empire: The Eternal State
- Ottoman Website
- The Ottoman Empire Map of Europe in year 1600 with a detailed view of the Empire. This is the list of Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire. See also Ottoman Empire Below is the list of Ottoman Kaptan Pashas between 1401 and 1867. Pasha (1535-1700 Muhammad Hassan 1535-1545 Hasan Pasha 1545-1552 (son of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha) Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire covers the topics related to achievements and distinguished events that happened during the existence of the empire The Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim Pirates and Privateers that operated from North Africa, from The Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Crimea (Qırım Hanlığı|قريم خانلغى Крымское ханство - Krymskoye khanstvo;
- History of Turkish Empire- Gives detailed timetable.
- World Civilizations: The Ottomans — a comprehensive site that covers much about the Ottoman state and government
- Capitals of Ottoman Empire — covers the different Ottoman capitals
- Turkish Oral Narrative
- Information about Ottomans
- Forced population transfers in early Ottoman imperial policyPDF (566 KiB) - covers the period 1300-1600
- Jews in the Ottoman Empire and in Istanbul 1453-1914 (from Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971)
- The Sakıp Sabancı Collection of Ottoman Calligraphy
Audio Interview: Virginia Aksan discussed the history of Ottoman Warfare [3] Audio Interview: Donald Quataret on the history of Ottoman Industrialization [4] Audio Interview: Audio Interview: Hans Lukas Kieser on the history of the Armenian Genocide [[5]]
In Turkish
- Osmanlı Devleti ile ilgili ansiklopedik bilgiler
- Flags of the Ottoman Empire—contains information about Ottoman flags
- Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Hakkında bilgi...
A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International
Dictionary
Ottoman Empire
-proper noun
- A large Turkish sultanate centered on modern Turkey; founded in the 13th century, it lasted until the end of World War I.
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