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Notable Zoologists

Georges Cuvier · Charles Darwin William Kirby · Carolus Linnaeus Konrad Lorenz · Thomas Say Alfred Russel Wallace · more...

History

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Ornithology (from Greek: ορνις, ornis, "bird"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of birds. Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Anthrozoology is the study of human - Animal interaction ("animal" referring to all non-human animals also described as the science focusing on Arachnology (from Greek grc ἀράχνη arachnē, "spider" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Cetology (from Greek grc κῆτος kētos, "whale" and grc -λογία -logia) is the branch of Marine mammal Conchology is the scientific, semi-scientific or Amateur study of mollusk shells (in the UK spelled mollusc shells Entomology (from Greek grc ἔντομος entomos, "that which is cut in pieces or engraved/segmented" hence "insect" and grc -λογία Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Herpetology (from Greek: ἑρπετόν herpeton, "creeping animal" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the branch of Zoology Ichthyology (from Greek ἰχθυ ikhthu, "fish" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the branch of Zoology devoted to the study Malacology is the branch of Invertebrate Zoology which deals with the study of Mollusks the second-largest Phylum of animals in terms of described In Zoology, mammalogy is the study of Mammals – a class of Vertebrates with characteristics such as Homeothermic Metabolism Myrmecology (from Greek μύρμεξ myrmex, "ant" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the scientific study of Ants Neuroethology ("neuro" Greek related to Nerve cells, "ethos" Greek habit or custom is an evolutionary and comparative approach to the study of animal behavior Planktology is the study of Plankton, various Microorganisms that inhabit bodies of Water. Paleozoology, also spelled as palaeozoology ( Greek: παλαιον paleon = old and ζωον zoon = animal is the branch of Paleontology Primatology is the study of Primates It is a diverse Discipline and primatologists can be found in departments of Biology, Anthropology Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier ( August 23 1769 &ndash May 13, 1832) was a French naturalist Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life William Kirby ( September 19, 1759 &ndash July 4, 1850) was an English Entomologist, an original member of the Linnean Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Konrad Zacharias Lorenz ( November 7, 1903 in Vienna &ndash February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian Thomas Say ( June 27, 1787 &ndash October 10, 1834) was an American naturalist, Entomologist, Malacologist Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer This is a list of Zoologists by their surnames with abbreviated given names Timeline of zoology This article considers the history of Zoology before the theory of Evolution proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859 This article considers the history of Zoology in the years up to 1912 since the theory of Evolution by Natural selection proposed by Charles Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Several aspects of the study of ornithology differ from closely related disciplines, possibly due to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of field studies undertaken by amateur volunteers working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology.

The science of ornithology has a long history and studies on birds aided the introduction and refinement of key concepts in evolution, behaviour and ecology such as those of species, speciation, instinct, learning, ecological niches, guilds, island biogeography, phylogeography and conservation. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Speciation is the Evolutionary process by which new biological Species arise Instinct is the inherent disposition of a living Organism toward a particular Behavior. In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans In Ecology, a niche (pronounced nich nēsh or nish A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living Guilds are groups of Species that exploit the same resources in the same way therefore sharing a similar Ecological niche. Island biogeography is a field within Biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the Species richness of natural communities Phylogeography is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the contemporary geographic distributions of individuals Bird conservation is a field in the science of Conservation biology related to threatened Birds Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species ^[1] While early ornithology was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species, ornithologists today concern themselves with answering specific questions, often using birds as models to test hypotheses and predictions based on theory. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology and innovations are constantly made. ^[2]

Contents 1 History 1.1 Early studies 1.2 Scientific studies 1.3 Rise to popularity 2 Techniques 2.1 Collections 2.2 In the field 2.3 In the laboratory 2.4 Collaborative studies 3 Applications 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

History

See also: Timeline of ornithology

Early studies

Humans must have observed birds from the earliest times, and stone age drawings are among the oldest indications of interest in birds. The following is a timeline of Ornithology events BC up 1500- 800 BC - The Vedas mention the habit of brood parasitism in the The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking Birds were perhaps important as a food source, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking ^[3]

Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds. ^[4] Traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic, many still in use. Onomatopoeia (also spelled onomatopœia, from Greek: ονοματοποιΐα is a Word or a grouping of words that imitates the sound it is describing ^[5] Traditional knowledge continues to be of importance especially due to their relevance in conservation. ^[6] Most of this information is passed on through oral traditions (see ethno-ornithology). Ethnoornithology (also ethno-ornithology is the study of the relationship between people and Birds (from " ethno- " - relating to people and culture ^[7][8] Hunting of birds would also have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of the world. Poultry is the category of Domesticated Birds which some humans keep for the purpose of collecting their eggs, or kill for their Meat and/or Falconry or hawking is an Art or Sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey to hunt or pursue game for humans Artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China (246 BC) and Egypt (at least 400 BC). ^[9] The Egyptians also showed a great deal of knowledge of birds through their use of bird symbols in hieroglyphs, many of which, though stylized, are still recognizable.

Some of the early written records provide valuable information on past distributions of species. Ulisse Aldrovandi ( 11 September 1522 - 4 May 1605) was an Italian naturalist, the moving force behind Bologna For instance Xenophon records the abundance of the Ostrich in Assyria (Anabasis, i. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca The Ostrich ( Struthio camelus) is a large Flightless bird native to Africa (and formerly the Middle East) Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture 5), the subspecies there is extinct with the remaining Ostrich races being found only in Africa. The Vedas (1500-800 BC) mention the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea). "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. Brood parasites are organisms that use the strategy of brood-parasitism, a kind of Kleptoparasitism found among Birds Fish or Insects The Asian Koel ( Eudynamys scolopacea) formerly also Common Koel, is a member of the Cuckoo order of Birds the Cuculiformes ^[10] The early art of China, Japan, Persia and India included illustrations of birds made with great accuracy, a field that developed later in other parts of the world. David Lack wrote in his Review of Fine Bird Books, 1700-1900 (reprinted in Enjoying Ornithology, 1965):

It must be remembered that, while [John] Gould himself was a skilled craftsman, many of the books that bear his name were illustrated by others, including H. C. Richter, Edward Lear and Joseph Wolf. David Lambert Lack FRS, ( 16 July 1910 – 12 March 1973) was a British Ornithologist and Biologist John Gould ( 14 September 1804 – 3 February 1881) was an English Ornithologist. Henry Constantine Richter (1821 - 1902 was a zoological Illustrator. Edward Lear ( 12 May 1812 – 29 January 1888) was an English Artist, Illustrator and Writer known Joseph Wolf ( January 22, 1820 - April 20 1899) was a German Artist. Indeed, some would regard the last-named as the greatest bird illustrator, particularly in his birds of prey, which combine accuracy with power. One must, I think, qualify this statement by 'of the western world', because the paintings from India and China surpass anything that the West has yet produced, and only these, perhaps, come in the category of great art.

Aristotle in 350 BC in his Historia Animalium^[11] noted the habit of bird migration, moulting, egg laying and life spans. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability He also introduced several incorrect concepts such as the idea that swallows hibernated in winter. For the ability of certain operating systems see Hibernate (OS feature Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression He however noted that cranes travelled from the steppes of Scythia to the marshes at the headwaters of the Nile. The Common Crane ( Grus grus) also known as the Eurasian Crane, is a Bird of the family Gruidae, the cranes. In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The idea of swallow hibernation became so well established that, in 1878, the nineteenth-century American ornithologist, Dr. Elliott Coues was able to list as many as 182 publications dealings with the hibernation of swallows. Elliott Coues ( September 9, 1842 &ndash December 25, 1899) was an American army surgeon, Historian, Ornithologist ^[12] Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of Barnacle geese. Their nests had not been seen and it was believed that they grew by transformations of goose barnacles, an idea that became prevalent from around the 11th century and noted by Bishop Giraldus Cambrensis (Gerald of Wales) in Topographia Hiberniae (1187). Goose barnacles (suborder Lepadomorpha) sometimes Gooseneck barnacles, are filter-feeding Crustaceans that live attached to hard surfaces of ^[13]

The origins of falconry have been traced to Mesopotamia and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC). Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Falconry made its entry to Europe only after AD 400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor of Hohenstaufen (1194 – 1250) learnt about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and obtained an Arabic treatise on falconry by Moamyn. Frederick II ( December 26, 1194 &ndash December 13, 1250) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was a Pretender to the title He had this work translated into Latin and also conducted experiments on birds in his menagerie. Menagerie is the term for a historical form of keeping wild and exotic animals in human captivity and therefore a predecessor of the modern Zoological garden. By sealing the eyes of vultures and placing food nearby, he concluded that they found food by sight, and not by smell. He also developed methods to keep and train falcons. The studies that he undertook over nearly 30 years, were published in 1240 as De Arte Venandi cum Avibus (The Art of Hunting with Birds), considered one of the earliest studies on bird behaviour. ^[14]

Several early German and French scholars compiled old works and conducted new research on birds. These included Guillaume Rondelet who described his observations in the Mediterranean and Pierre Belon who described the fish and birds that he had seen in France and the Levant. Guillaume Rondelet (1507-1566 known also as Rondeletius was professor of Medicine at the University of Montpellier in southern France. Pierre Belon (1517‑1564 was a French naturalist. He is sometimes known as Pierre Belon du Mans, or in Latin translations of his works as Petrus Belon's Book of Birds (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some two hundred species. His comparison of the skeleton of humans and birds is considered as a landmark in comparative anatomy. Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the Anatomy of Organisms It is closely related to Evolutionary biology and Phylogeny ^[15] Volcher Coiter (1534-1576), a Dutch anatomist made detailed studies of the internal structures of birds and produced a classification of birds, De Diferentiis Avium (around 1572), that was based on structure and habits. Volcher Coiter (also spelled Coyter or Koyter) (1534 Groningen - 2 June 1576, Brienne-le-Château) was a Dutch ^[16] Konrad Gesner wrote the Vogelbuch and Icones avium omnium around 1557. Konrad Gessner (Conrad Gessner Conrad Geßner Conrad von Gesner Conradus Gesnerus Conrad Gesner 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) Like Gesner, Ulisse Aldrovandi, an encyclopedic naturalist began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII which was published from 1599 to 1603. Ulisse Aldrovandi ( 11 September 1522 - 4 May 1605) was an Italian naturalist, the moving force behind Bologna Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals and his work included 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants and animals, published in 363 volumes. His Ornithology alone covers 2000 pages and included such aspects as the chicken and poultry techniques. The chicken ( Gallus gallus, sometimes G gallus domesticus) is a domesticated Fowl which is traditionally believed to have descended from ^[17][18]William Turner's Historia Avium ("History of Birds"), published at Cologne in 1544, was another early ornithological work. William Turner (c 1508 – 7 July, 1568) was a British ornithologist and botanist. He notes that the kite in cities of England would snatch the meat out of the hands of children. The Red Kite ( Milvus milvus) is a medium-large Bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such In his day the Osprey was well known but disliked for it was believed to empty their fishponds; anglers used to mix their bait with its fat. The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus, also called Sea Hawk, is a diurnal, fish-eating Bird of prey. Turner's work was written in a tone that reflected violent times; quite unlike Gilbert White's The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne which was written in a more tranquil era. This article is about the 18th-century English naturalist For the 20th-century American geographer see Gilbert F The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, or just The Natural History of Selborne was a book by pioneering English naturalist ^[15][19] In the 17th century Francis Willughby (1635-1672) and John Ray (1627-1705) came up with the first major system of bird classification that was based on function and morphology rather than on form or behavior. Francis Willughby ( November 22, 1635 – July 3, 1672) was an English ornithologist and ichthyologist. John Ray ( November 29, 1627 &ndash January 17, 1705) was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the Willughby's Ornithologiae libri tres (1676) completed by John Ray is sometimes considered to mark the beginning of scientific ornithology. Ray also worked on Ornithologia which was published post-humously in 1713 as Synopsis methodica avium et piscium. ^[20] The earliest list of British birds, Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum was written by Christopher Merrett in 1667, however it was not considered of value by many including John Ray. Christopher Merret (Merrett FRS ( February 16, 1614 /5 &ndash August 19 1695) was an English physician and scientist ^[21]

Towards the late 1700s, Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1723-1806) and Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) began new works on birds. An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump is a 1768 oil-on-canvas painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, part of a series of candlelit scenes that Wright painted Mathurin Jacques Brisson ( 30 April 1723 &ndash 23 June 1806) was a French Zoologist and natural philosopher Georges-Louis Leclerc fr Comte de Buffon ( September 7, 1707 April 16, 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician biologist Brisson produced a six-volume work Ornithologie in 1760 and Buffon's included nine volumes (volumes 16-24) on birds Histoire naturelle des oiseaux (1770-1785) in his work on science Histoire naturelle générale et particulière (1749-1804). Coenraad Jacob Temminck (1778 - 1858) sponsored François Le Vaillant [1753-1824] to collect bird specimens in Africa and this resulted in Le Vaillant's six-volume Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique (1796-1808). Coenraad Jacob Temminck ( March 31, 1778, Amsterdam - January 30, 1858, Lisse) was a Dutch aristocrat and François Le Vaillant ( 1753 - November 22, 1824) was a French explorer collector and Ornithologist. Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot (1748-1831) spent ten years studying North American birds and wrote the Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amerique septentrionale (1807-1808?). Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot ( May 10, 1748 - 1831 was a French Ornithologist. Vieillot pioneered in the use of life-histories and habits in classification. ^[22]

Scientific studies

It was not until the Victorian era—with the emergence of the gun, the concept of natural history, and the collection of natural objects such as bird eggs and skins—that ornithology emerged as a specialized science. ^[23][24] This specialization led to the formation in Britain of the British Ornithologists' Union in 1858. BOU may also stand for Bank of Uganda, the central bank of Uganda The British Ornithologists' Union ( BOU) aims to encourage In 1859 the members founded its journal The Ibis. The sudden spurt in ornithology was also due in part to colonization. A hundred years later, in 1959, R. E. Moreau noted that ornithology in this period was preoccupied with the geographical distributions of various species of birds. Reginald Ernest Moreau, (1897 &ndash 1970 was an English Ornithologist. ^[25] {{quote|No doubt the preoccupation with widely extended geographical ornithology, was fostered by the immensity of the areas over which British rule or influence stretched during the 19th century and for some time afterwards. |Moreau^[26]

The bird collectors of the Victorian era observed the variations in bird forms and habits across geographic regions, noting local specialization and variation in widespread species. The collections of museums and private collectors grew with contributions from various parts of the world. The naming of species with binomials and the organization of birds into groups based on their similarities became the main work of museum specialists. The variations in widespread birds across geographical region caused the introduction of trinomial names.

The search for patterns in the variations of birds was attempted by many. Early ornithologists like William Swainson followed the Quinarian system and this was replaced by more complex "maps" of affinities in works by Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alfred Russell Wallace. The Quinarian system was a method of zoological classification which had a brief period of popularity in the mid 19th century especially among British naturalists Hugh Edwin Strickland ( March 2, 1811 - September 14, 1853) was an English Geologist, ornithologist and Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer ^[27]

The Galapagos finches were especially influential in the development of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Finches are Passerine Birds often Seed -eating found chiefly in the northern hemisphere and Africa. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life His contemporary Alfred Russel Wallace also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of biogeography. Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Wallace was influenced by the work of Philip Lutley Sclater on the distribution patterns of birds. Philip Lutley Sclater ( November 4, 1829 - June 27, 1913) was an English Lawyer and Zoologist. ^[28]

For Darwin, the problem was how species arose from a common ancestor, but he did not attempt to find rules for delineation of species. The Quinarian system was a method of zoological classification which had a brief period of popularity in the mid 19th century especially among British naturalists The species problem, was tackled by the ornithologist Ernst Mayr. The species problem is a mixture of difficult related questions that often come up when Biologists identify Species and when they define the word "species" Ernst Walter Mayr ( July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany &ndash February 3, 2005, Bedford Massachusetts U Mayr was able to demonstrate that geographical isolation and the accumulation of genetic differences led to the splitting of species. ^[29]

Early ornithologists were preoccupied with matters of species identification. In 1901 Robert Ridgway wrote in the introduction to The Birds of North and Middle America that:

There are two essentially different kinds of ornithology: systematic or scientific, and popular. This article is about the American ornithologist For the Virginia congressman lawyer and editor see Robert Ridgway (congressman. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies and technical descriptions. The latter treats of their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts pertaining to their life histories.

This early idea that the study of living birds was merely recreation held sway until ecological theories were developed and became the predominant focus of ornithological studies. ^[1][25] The study of birds in their habitats was particularly advanced in Germany with bird ringing stations established as early as 1903. Bird ringing (also known as bird Banding) is an aid to studying wild Birds by attaching a small individually numbered metal or plastic ring to their legs By the 1920s the Journal für Ornithologie included many papers on the behavior, ecology, anatomy and physiology, many written by Erwin Stresemann. Erwin Stresemann ( November 22, 1889 - November 20, 1972) was a German Ornithologist. Ornithology in the United States continued to dominated by studies of morphological variations, species identities and geographic distributions, until it was influenced by Stresemann's student Ernst Mayr. ^[30] In Britain, some of the earliest ornithological works that used the word ecology appeared in 1915. ^[31] The Ibis however resisted the introduction of these new methods of study and it was not until 1943 that any paper on ecology appeared. ^[25] The work of David Lack on population ecology was pioneering. David Lambert Lack FRS, ( 16 July 1910 – 12 March 1973) was a British Ornithologist and Biologist Newer quantitative approaches were introduced for the study of ecology and behavior and this was not readily accepted. For instance, Claud Ticehurst wrote:

Sometimes it seems that elaborate plans and statistics are made to prove what is commonplace knowledge to the mere collector, such as that hunting parties often travel more or less in circles. Claud Buchanan Ticehurst (1881 &ndash 17 February 1941) was a British ornithologist.

—Ticehurst^[25]

David Lack's studies on population ecology included the mechanism involved in the regulation of population including the evolution of optimal clutch sizes. He concluded that population was regulated primarily by density-dependent controls, and also suggested that natural selection leads to life history traits that maximize the fitness of individuals. Others like Wynne-Edwards interpreted population regulation as a mechanism that aided the "species". This led to widespread debate on what constituted the "unit of selection". ^[29] Lack also pioneered the use of many new tools for research including the idea of using radar to study bird migration.

Birds were also widely used in studies of the niche hypothesis and Georgii Gause's competitive exclusion principle. Georgii Frantsevitch Gause (Георгий Францевич Гаузе ( December 27, 1910 &ndash May 4, 1986) more correctly transliterated In Community ecology, the competitive exclusion principle, sometimes referred to as Gause's Law of competitive exclusion or just Gause's Law Work on resource partitioning and the structuring of bird communities through competition were made by Robert MacArthur. Robert Helmer MacArthur ( April 7, 1930 &ndash November 1, 1972) was an American ecologist who made a major impact on many Patterns of biodiversity also became a topic interest. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Work on the relationship of the number of species to area and its application in the study of Island biogeography was pioneered by E. O. Wilson and Robert MacArthur. Island biogeography is a field within Biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the Species richness of natural communities Edward Osborne Wilson (born June 10, 1929) is an American biologist researcher ( Sociobiology, Biodiversity) theorist ( Robert Helmer MacArthur ( April 7, 1930 &ndash November 1, 1972) was an American ecologist who made a major impact on many ^[29] These studies led to the development of the discipline of landscape ecology. Landscape ecology is the science and art of studying and improving the relationship between spatial pattern and ecological processes on a multitude of scales and organizational levels (Wu 2006 2008

John Hurrell Crook studied the behaviour of weaverbirds and demonstrated the links between ecological conditions, behaviour and social systems. ^[29][32] Principles from economics were introduced into the study of biology by J. L. Brown. This led to the study of behaviour using cost-benefit analyses. ^[33] The rising interest in sociobiology also led to a spurt of bird studies in this area. Sociobiology is a neo-Darwinian and Socialism Synthesis of Scientific disciplines that attempts to explain Social behavior ^[29][34]

The study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese by Konrad Lorenz and the studies of instinct in Herring Gulls by Nicolaas Tinbergen, led to the establishment of the field of ethology. Konrad Zacharias Lorenz ( November 7, 1903 in Vienna &ndash February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian The Herring Gull, Larus argentatus, is a large Gull (up to 26 inches or 66 cm long and is the most abundant and best known of all gulls along the shores of Nikolaas "Niko" Tinbergen ( April 15, 1907 &ndash December 21, 1988) was a Dutch ethologist and Ornithologist Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal The study of learning became particularly of interest and the study of bird song has been a model for studies in neuro-ethology. Bird vocalization includes both Bird calls and bird songs In non-technical use bird songs are the bird sounds that are melodious to the human ear The role of hormones and physiology in the control of behaviour has also been aided by bird models. These have helped in the study of circadian and seasonal cycles. Studies on migration have attempted to answer questions on the evolution of migration, orientation and navigation. ^[29]

The growth of genetics and the rise of molecular biology saw the new gene-centered view of evolution. The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that Natural selection acts through differential survival of competing Studies on kinship and altruism, such as helpers, became of particular interest. Helpers at the nest is a term used in Behavioural ecology and Evolutionary biology to describe a social structure in which juveniles of one or both sexes remain The idea of inclusive fitness was used to interpret observations on behaviour and life-history and birds were widely used models for testing hypotheses based on theories postulated by W. D. Hamilton and others. There are a few definitions of Inclusive fitness (IF but one (that according to Oli 2003 is not consistent with W William Donald Hamilton, FRS ( 1 August 1936 &mdash 7 March 2000) was a British Evolutionary biologist ^[29]

The new tools of molecular-biology also led to new approaches to the study of bird systematics. The use of techniques such as DNA-DNA hybridization to study evolutionary relationships was pioneered by Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist resulting in what is called the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. DNA-DNA hybridization generally refers to a Molecular biology technique that measures the degree of genetic similarity between pools of DNA sequences Charles Gald Sibley ( August 7, 1917 – April 12, 1998) was an American Ornithologist and Molecular biologist Jon Edward Ahlquist specialized in Molecular phylogenetics and Ornithology, collaborating extensively with Charles Sibley, primarily at Yale University The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy is a radical bird Taxonomy proposed by Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist. These early techniques have been replaced by newer techniques based on mitochondrial DNA sequences and molecular phylogenetics approaches that make use of computational procedures for sequence alignment and phylogenetic tree construction to infer the evolutionary relationships of birds. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. In Bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the Primary sequences of DNA, RNA, or Protein to identify regions of A phylogenetic tree, also called an evolutionary tree, is a tree showing the Evolutionary relationships among various biological Species or other ^[35][36] Molecular techniques are also widely used in studies of avian population biology and ecology. Population biology is a study of biological populations of organisms especially in terms of Biodiversity, Evolution, and environmental biology. ^[37]

Rise to popularity

The use of field glasses or telescopes for bird observation began in the 1820s and 1830s with pioneers like J. Dovaston (who also a pioneered in the use of bird-feeders), but it was not until the 1880s that instruction manuals began to insist on the use of optical aids such as "a first-class telescope or field glass. "^[38][39]

The rise of field guides for the identification of birds was another major innovation. Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey ( August 8, 1863 - September 22, 1948) was an American Ornithologist and nature writer The early guides were large and cumbersome and were mainly focussed on identifying specimens in the hand. The earliest of the new generation of field guides was prepared by Florence Merriam, sister of Clinton Hart Merriam, the mammalogist. Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey ( August 8, 1863 - September 22, 1948) was an American Ornithologist and nature writer Clinton Hart Merriam ( December 5 1855 - March 19 1942) was an American zoologist ornithologist entomologist and ethnographer This was published in 1887 in a series Hints to Audubon Workers:Fifty Birds and How to Know Them in Grinnell's Audubon Magazine. ^[30] These were followed by new field guides including classics by Roger Tory Peterson. Roger Tory Peterson ( August 28, 1908 &ndash July 28, 1996) was an American naturalist, ornithologist, artist and educator ^[40]

The interest in birdwatching grew in popularity in many parts of the world and it was realized that there was a possibility for amateurs to contribute to professional biology. Birdwatching or birding is the observation and study of Birds with the naked eye or through a visual enhancement device like Binoculars. As early as 1916, Julian Huxley wrote a two part article in the Auk, noting the tensions between amateurs and professionals and suggesting the possibility that the "vast army of bird-lovers and bird-watchers could begin providing the data scientists needed to address the fundamental problems of biology. Sir Julian Sorell Huxley FRS ( 22 June 1887 &ndash 14 February 1975) was an English Evolutionary biologist "^[41][42]

The formation of popular organizations with large member bases grew in many countries, notably the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) in Britain and the Audubon Society in the US. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB) is a British Charitable organisation which works to promote conservation and protection The National Audubon Society is an American non-profit Environmental organization dedicated to conservancy The Audubon Society started in 1885. Both these organization were started with the primary objective of conservation. The RSPB, born in 1889, grew from a small group of women in Croydon who met regularly and called themselves the Fur, Fin and Feather Folk and who took a pledge 'to refrain from wearing the feathers of any birds not killed for the purpose of food, the Ostrich only exempted. Croydon is a large town and major commercial centre in South London, and the principal settlement of the London Borough of Croydon. ' The organization initially did not allow men as members, avenging a policy of the British Ornithologists' Union to keep out women. ^[23] Unlike the RSPB, which was primarily conservation oriented, the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) was started in 1933 with the aim of advancing ornithological study. Members were often involved in collaborative ornithological projects. These projects have resulted in atlases which detail the distribution of bird species across Britain. ^[43] In the United States, the Breeding Bird Surveys, conducted by the US Geological Survey have also produced atlases with information on breeding densities and changes in the density and distribution over time. Other volunteer collaborative ornithology projects were established in many other parts of the world. ^[44]

Techniques

The tools and techniques of ornithology are varied and new inventions and approaches are quickly incorporated. The techniques may be broadly dealt under the categories of those that are applicable to specimens and those that are used in the field, however the classification is imperfect as many of the newer non-destructive sampling and analysis techniques are applicable in both the laboratory and field.

Collections

Main article: Bird collections

The early approaches to bird study involved the collection of eggs. Bird collections are curated repositories of scientific Specimens consisting of Birds and their parts While collecting became a pastime for many amateurs, the labels associated with these egg collections made them unreliable for the serious study of bird breeding. In order to preserve eggs, a tiny hole was pierced and the contents were extracted out. This technique became standard with the invention of the blow drill around 1830. ^[23] Historic museum collections have however been of value in determining the effect of modern pesticides such as DDT. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long ^[45][46] Museum bird collections continue to act as a resource for taxonomic studies. Bird collections are curated repositories of scientific Specimens consisting of Birds and their parts ^[47]

The use of bird skins for documenting species has been central to systematic ornithology. Bird skins are prepared by retaining the key bones of the wings, leg and skull along with the skin and feathers. They were treated with arsenic to prevent fungal and insect (mostly Dermestidae) attack. Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Dermestidae are a family of Coleoptera that are commonly referred to as skin beetles Arsenic being toxic was later replaced by borax. Borax (from Persian burah) also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate, is an important Boron Sportsmen became familiar with these skinning techniques and started sending in their skins to museums, some of them from far away locations. This led to the formation of huge collections of bird skins in Museums in Europe and North America. Many private collections were also held. These became references for comparison of species and the ornithologists at these museums were able to document species from locations that they never visited. Morphometrics of these skins, particularly the lengths of the tarsus, bill, tail and wing became important in bird systematics. Morphometrics is a field concerned with studying variation and change in the form (size and shape of organisms Commonly the measurements taken are of little significance in terms of These historic skin collections have also been utilized in more recent studies on molecular phylogenetics by the extraction of ancient DNA. Adna redirects here For the unincorporated community in Washington see Adna Washington. The importance of type specimens in the description of species make skin collections a vital resource for systematic ornithology. In biology a type is that which fixes a name to a Taxon. Depending on the nomenclature code which is applied to the organism in question a type may be a specimen However, with the rise of molecular techniques, it has now become possible to establish the species status of rare discoveries such as the Bulo Burti Boubou Laniarius liberatus and the Bugun Liocichla Liocichla bugunorum using blood, DNA and feather samples as the holotype material. The Bulo Burti Boubou ( Laniarius liberatus) is a medium-sized Passerine Bird in the Bushshrike family The Bugun Liocichla, Liocichla bugunorum, is a Passerine bird Species from the Old World babbler family closely related to the A holotype is one of several possible Biological types A type is what fixes a name to a Taxon.

Other methods of preservation include the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet-specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical study, apart from providing better quality of DNA for molecular studies. ^[48] Freeze drying of specimens has also been attempted in more recent times. Freeze drying (also known as lyophilization or cryodesiccation) is a Dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material While the technique has advantages in that it preserves stomach contents and anatomy, it may have the same problems as dry skins in that shrinkage can occur leading to errors in morphometrics. ^{[49] [50]}

In the field

The study of birds in the field was helped enormously by improvements in optics. Photography made it possible to document birds in the field with great accuracy. High power spotting scopes today allow observers to detect minute morphological differences that were earlier possible only by examination of the specimen in the hand. ^[51]

The capture and marking of birds enables detailed studies of life-history. Mist nets are used by ornithologists to capture wild Birds for banding or other research projects Techniques for capturing birds are varied and include the use of bird liming for perching birds, mist nets for woodland birds, cannon netting for open area flocking birds, the Bal chattri for raptors,^[52] decoys and funnel traps for water birds. Birdlime is a viscid adhesive substance used in trapping Birds It is spread on a branch or twig upon which a bird may land and be caught Mist nets are used by ornithologists to capture wild Birds for banding or other research projects Cannon netting is a method of catching large numbers of animals often birds usually to band them or otherwise tag them as well as acquiring biometric data (measurements A Heligoland trap (or funnel trap) is a large building-sized funnel-shaped rigid structure used to trap Birds so that they can be ringed or otherwise ^[53]

The bird in the hand may be examined for measurements including standard lengths and weight. The California Condor ( Gymnogyps californianus) is a North American Species of Bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae Morphometrics is a field concerned with studying variation and change in the form (size and shape of organisms Commonly the measurements taken are of little significance in terms of Feather moult and skull ossification provide indications of age and health. Sex can be determined by examination of anatomy in some sexually non-dimorphic species. Blood samples may be drawn to determine hormonal conditions in studies of physiology, identify DNA markers for studying genetics and kinship in studies of breeding biology and phylogeography. Blood may also be used to pathogens and arthropod borne viruses. Arbovirus is a shortened name given to viruses that are transmitted by arthropods, or ar thropod- bo rne viruses. Ectoparasites may be collected for studies of coevolution and zoonoses. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. A zoonosis (ˌzoʊəˈnoʊsɨs or zoonose is any Infectious disease that is able to be transmitted (by a vector) from other Animals both wild and domestic ^[54] In many of cryptic species, measurements (such as the relative lengths of wing feathers in warblers) are vital in establshing identity.

Captured birds are often marked for future recognition. Rings or bands provide long-lasting identification but require capture for the information on them to be read. Bird ringing (also known as bird Banding) is an aid to studying wild Birds by attaching a small individually numbered metal or plastic ring to their legs Field identifiable marks such as coloured bands, wing tags or dyes enable short-term studies where individual identification is required. Mark and recapture techniques make demographic studies possible. Mark and recapture is a method commonly used in Ecology to estimate Population size and population vital rates (i Demographics or demographic data refers to selected population characteristics as used in government Marketing or opinion research or the Demographic profiles Ringing has traditionally been used in the study of migration. In recent times satellite transmitters provide the ability to track migrating birds in near real-time. ^[55]

Techniques for estimating population density include point counts, transects and territory mapping. Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume In Contract bridge, various Bidding systems have been devised to enable partners to describe their hands to each other so that they may reach the Optimum contract. A transect is a path along which one records and counts occurrences of the phenomenon of study (e Observations are made in the field using carefully designed protocols and the results may analysed to estimate bird diversity, relative abundance or absolute population densities. ^[56]

In the laboratory

Many aspects of bird biology are difficult to study in the field. These include the study of behaviour and physiological changes that require a long duration of access to the bird. Field studies are often augmented by laboratory studies of samples such as blood or feathers. For instance, the variation in the ratios of stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes it possible to roughly establish the origins of migrant birds using mass spectroscopic analysis of feather samples. Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies the chemical composition of a compound or sample based on the Mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles ^[57] These techniques can be used in combination with other techniques such as ringing. ^[58]

Studies in bird behaviour include the use of tamed and trained birds. Studies on bird intelligence and song learning have mainly been laboratory based. Bird intelligence deals with the definition of Intelligence and its measurement as it applies to Birds Traditionally birds have been considered inferior in intelligence Bird vocalization includes both Bird calls and bird songs In non-technical use bird songs are the bird sounds that are melodious to the human ear Field studies make use of a wide range of techniques including the use of dummy owls to elicit mobbing behaviour, dummy males to elicit territorial behaviour and thereby to establish the boundaries of bird territories and the use of call playback. ^[59]

Studies of bird migration including aspects of navigation, orientation and physiology are often studied using captive birds in special cages that record their activities. Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability ^[60]

Collaborative studies

With the widespread interest in birds, it has been possible to use a large number of people to work on collaborative ornithological projects that cover large geographic scales. The Canada Goose ( Branta canadensis) is a Goose belonging to the Genus Branta native to North America. ^[61][62] These citizen science projects include nation-wide projects such as the Christmas Bird Count,^[63] Backyard Bird Count,^[64] the North American Breeding Bird Survey, the Canadian EPOQ^[65] or regional projects such as the Asian Waterfowl Census. Citizen science is a term used for projects or ongoing program of scientific work in which individual volunteers or networks of volunteers many of whom may have no specific The Christmas Bird Count (CBC is a census of Birds in the Western Hemisphere performed annually in the early Northern-hemisphere winter by volunteer Birders. The Breeding Bird Survey monitors the status and trends of bird populations These projects help to identify distributions of birds, their population densities and changes over time, arrival and departure dates of migration, breeding seasonality and even population genetics. ^[66] The results of many of these projects are published as bird atlases. A bird atlas is an ornithological work that attempts to provide information on the distribution abundance long-term change as well as seasonal patterns of Bird occurrence Studies of migration using bird ringing or colour marking often involve the cooperation of people and organizations in different countries. ^[67]

Applications

Wild birds impact many human activities while domesticated birds are important sources of eggs, meat, feathers and other products. Applied and economic ornithology aim to reduce the ill effects of problem birds and enhance gains from beneficial species.

The role of some species of birds as pests has been well known, particularly in agriculture. A pest is an organism which has characteristics that are regarded by Humans as injurious or unwanted Granivorous birds such as the Queleas in Africa have been among the most numerous birds in the world and foraging flocks can cause devastation. Quelea is a genus of songbirds order Passeriformes. The most significant species is Quelea quelea, the Red-billed Quelea of Africa ^[68][69] Many insectivorous birds are also noted as beneficial in agriculture. Many early studies on the benefits or damages caused by birds in fields were made by analysis of stomach contents and observation of feeding behaviour. ^[70] Modern studies aimed to manage birds in agriculture make use of a wide range of principles from ecology. ^[71] Intensive aquaculture has brought humans in conflict with fish-eating birds such as cormorants. Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants The Bird family Phalacrocoracidae is represented by some 40 Species of cormorants and shags. ^[72]

Large flocks of pigeons and starlings in cities are often considered as a nuisance and techniques to reduce their populations or their impacts are constantly innovated. ^[73][74] Birds are also of medical importance and their role as carriers of human diseases such as Japanese Encephalitis, West Nile Virus and H5N1 have been widely recognised. Japanese encephalitis ( Japanese: 日本脳炎 Nihon-nōen; previously known as Japanese B encephalitis to distinguish it from von Economo West Nile virus (or WNV is a Virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE antigenic complex of viruses it is found in Influenza A virus subtype H5[[Neuraminidase N1]], also known as A(H5N1 or simply H5N1, is a subtype of the Influenza A virus which can cause ^[75][76] Bird strikes and the damage they cause in aviation are of particularly great importance, due to the fatal consequences and the level of economic losses caused. A bird strike (sometimes birdstrike, bird hit, or BASH (Bird Aircraft Strike Hazard in Aviation is a collision between an airborne animal (usually Aviation refers to activities involving man-made flying devices ( Aircraft) including the people organizations and regulatory bodies involved with them It has been estimated that the airline industry incurs worldwide damages of US $ 1. 2 billion each year. ^[77]

Many species of birds have been driven to extinction by human activities. This page refers only to birds that have gone extinct since the year 1500 A Bird conservation requires specialized knowledge in aspects of biology, ecology and may require the use of very location specific approaches. Bird conservation is a field in the science of Conservation biology related to threatened Birds Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species Ornithologists contribute to conservation biology by studying the ecology of birds in the wild and identifying the key threats and ways of enhancing the survival of species. "Conservation Biology" redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Conservation Biology (journal. ^[78] Critically endangered species such as the California Condor have had to be captured and bred in captivity. The California Condor ( Gymnogyps californianus) is a North American Species of Bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae Such ex-situ conservation measures may be followed by re-introduction of the species into the wild. Ex-situ conservation means literally "off-site conservation " ^[79]

See also

• List of ornithological societies
• List of ornithology journals
• List of famous ornithologists
• Bird observatory

References

External links

• Ornithologie (1773-1792) Francois Nicholas Martinet Digital Edition Smithsonian Digital Libraries
• List of oldest ornithological organisations in the world
• History of ornithology in North America
• History of ornithology in China
• Hill ornithology collections
• History of ornithology (in Italian)

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