In the context of United States constitutional interpretation, originalism is a family of theories central to all of which is the proposition that the Constitution has a fixed and knowable meaning, which was established at the time of its drafting. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Judicial interpretation is a theory or mode of thought that explains how the Judiciary should interpret the Law, particularly Constitutional documents A neologism, "originalism" is a formalist theory of law and a corollary of textualism. A neologism (from Greek neo = "new" + logos = "word" is a word that although devised relatively recently in a specific time period has been Legal formalism is a positivist view in Jurisprudence and the Philosophy of law. A corollary is a statement which follows readily from a previously proven statement Textualism is a formalist theory of statutory interpretation which holds that a Statute 's ordinary meaning should govern its interpretation as opposed to inquiries Today, it is popular among U.S. political conservatives, and is most prominently associated with Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas and Robert Bork. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined (born March 11, 1936) is an American Jurist and the second most senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an American Jurist. He has been serving as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Robert Heron Bork (born March 1, 1927) is a conservative American legal scholar who advocates the judicial philosophy of Originalism. However, some liberals, such as Justice Hugo Black and Akhil Amar^[1] have also subscribed to the theory. Hugo LaFayette Black (February 27 1886&ndashSeptember 25 1971 was an American politician and jurist. Akhil Reed Amar (born 1958 is Southmayd Professor of Law at Yale Law School, an expert on Constitutional law and Criminal procedure.

Originalism is a family of theories, principally:

• The 'original intent theory', which holds that interpretation of a written constitution is (or should be) consistent with what was meant by those who drafted and ratified it.
• The original meaning theory, which is closely related to textualism, is the view that interpretation of a written constitution or law should be based on what reasonable persons living at the time of its adoption would have declared the ordinary meaning of the text to be. Original meaning is the dominant form of the legal theory of Originalism today Textualism is a formalist theory of statutory interpretation which holds that a Statute 's ordinary meaning should govern its interpretation as opposed to inquiries The reasonable person standard is often used legal term that originated in the development of the Common law. The Plain meaning rule, also known as the literal rule, is a type of statutory construction, which dictates that statutes are to be interpreted using the ordinary It is with this view that most originalists, such as Justices Scalia and Thomas, are associated.

Both of these theories share the view that there is an authority, contemporaneous with a constitution's or statute's ratification, which should govern its interpretation; the divisions relate to what exactly that authority is: the intentions of the authors or the ratifiers, or the original meaning of the text.

The primary alternative to originalism is most commonly described as the Living Constitution; this is the theory that the Constitution was written in flexible terms whose meaning is dynamic. The Living Constitution is a concept in Constitutional interpretation which suggests that the Constitution should be seen as continually evolving with the society Although the two approaches are generally regarded as competing theories of interpretation, a recent article by Yale Law Professor Jack Balkin has received some attention for arguing that they could be compatible. Jack M Balkin (born August 13, 1956 in Kansas City, Missouri) is the Knight Professor of Constitutional Law and the ^[2]

Contents 1 Origins of the term 2 Differentiated from strict constructionism 3 Forms of originalism 3.1 Original intent 3.2 Original intent evolves 3.3 Original meaning 3.4 Semantic Originalism 4 Methodology 5 Discussion 5.1 Philosophical underpinnings 5.2 Function of Constitutional jurisprudence 5.3 Matters rendered moot by originalism 5.4 What originalism is not 5.4.1 Originalism is not "the theory of original intent" 5.4.2 Originalism is not conservatism 5.4.3 Originalism is not always an answer in and of itself 6 Pros and cons 6.1 Arguments favoring originalism 6.2 Arguments opposing originalism 7 References 8 Footnotes 9 See also 10 External links

Origins of the term

In Originalism and the Fourteenth Amendment,^[3] Brett Boyce described the origins of the term "originalist" as follows:

The term "originalism" has been most commonly used since the middle 1980's and was apparently coined by Paul Brest in The Misconceived Quest for the Original Understanding. Earlier discussions often used the term "interpretivism" to denote theories that sought to derive meaning from the constitutional text alone ("textualism"), or from the intentions of the originators ("intentionalism"). See, for example, John Hart Ely, Democracy and Distrust: a Theory of Judicial Review ("interpretivism"); Thomas Grey, Do We Have an Unwritten Constitution? ("interpretive model"); H. Jefferson Powell, The Original Understanding of Original Intent ("intentionalism").

Current discussions have tended to reject the labels "interpretivism", which often embraces nonoriginalist textualism, and "intentionalism", which suggests reliance on subjective intentions rather than objective meaning. See Gregory Bassham, Original Intent and the Constitution; Richard B. Saphire, Enough About Originalism. ^[4]

Differentiated from strict constructionism

It is often asserted that "Originalism" is synonymous with "strict constructionism. Strict constructionism refers to a particular legal philosophy of Judicial interpretation that limits or restricts judicial interpretation "^[5][6][7][8]

Both theories are associated with textualist and formalist schools of thought, but there are pronounced differences between them. Textualism is a formalist theory of statutory interpretation which holds that a Statute 's ordinary meaning should govern its interpretation as opposed to inquiries Legal formalism is a positivist view in Jurisprudence and the Philosophy of law. Justice Scalia differentiates the two by pointing out that, unlike an originalist, a strict constructionist would not acknowledge that "he uses a cane" means "he walks with a cane" (because, strictly speaking, this is not what "he uses a cane" means). (born March 11, 1936) is an American Jurist and the second most senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States ^[9] Scalia has averred that he is "not a strict constructionist, and no-one ought to be;" he goes further, calling strict constructionism "a degraded form of textualism that brings the whole philosophy into disrepute. "^[10]

Originalism is a theory of interpretation, not construction. See Barnett, The Original Meaning of the Commerce Clause. As Scalia has said, "the Constitution, or any text, should be interpreted [n]either strictly [n]or sloppily; it should be interpreted reasonably"; once originalism has told a Judge what the provision of the Constitution means, they are bound by that meaning—but the business of Judging is not simply to know what the text means (interpretation), but to take the law's necessarily general provisions and apply them to the specifics of a given case or controversy (construction). In many cases, the meaning might be so specific that no discretion is permissible, but in many cases, it is still before the Judge to say what a reasonable interpretation might be. A Judge could, therefore, be both an Originalist and a strict constructionist—but s/he is not one by virtue of being the other.

To put the difference more explicitly, both schools take the plain meaning of the text as their starting point, but have different approaches that can best be illustrated with a fictitious example. The Plain meaning rule, also known as the literal rule, is a type of statutory construction, which dictates that statutes are to be interpreted using the ordinary

Suppose that the Constitution contained (which it obviously does not) a provision that a person may not be "subjected to the punishments of hanging by the neck, beheading, stoning, pressing, or execution by firing squad". A strict constructionist would interpret that clause to mean that the specific punishments mentioned above were unconstitutional, but that other forms of capital punishment were not. For a strict constructionist, the specific, strict reading of the text is the beginning and end of the inquiry.

For an Originalist, however, the text is the beginning of the inquiry, and two Originalists might reach very different results, not only from the strict constructionist, but from each other. "Originalists can reach different results in the same case" (see What Originalism is Not — Originalism is not always an answer in and of itself, infra); one originalist might look at the context in which the clause was written, and might discover that the punishments listed in the clause were the only forms of capital punishment in use at that time, and the only forms of capital punishment that had ever been used at the time of ratification. An originalist might therefore conclude that capital punishment in general—including those methods for it invented since ratification, such as the electric chair—are not constitutional. Another originalist may look at the text and see that the writers created a list. He would assume that the Congress intended this to be an exhaustive list of objectionable executions. Otherwise, they would have banned capital punishment as a whole, instead of listing specific means of punishment. He would rule that other forms of execution are constitutional.

The paragraph above does not give examples of Original intent vis a vis Original meaning. Using the former, the Judge would look for the letters and journals of the Founders on the subject of capital punishment. If he found that a majority expressed an aversion to it, the interpretation would be averse to capital punishment. Using Original meaning the Judge would look for the frequency of each contemporaneous form of capital punishment. If any form other than those listed was extremely rare, the decision could be averse to all capital punishment. If another form, not listed, was not rare, the decision would have to be in favor of capital punishment because reasonable persons in 1793 would so interpret the clause.

Forms of originalism

Originalism is actually a family of related views.

Original intent

Main article: Original intent

The "original form of originalism" was known as intentionalism, or "Original intent", and entailed applying laws based on the subjective intention of its authors. For instance, the authors of the U. S. Constitution would be the group of "Founding Fathers" that drafted it. Founding Fathers are persons instrumental in the establishment of an Institution, usually a political institution especially those connected to the origination of its Ideals The intentionalist methodology involves studying the writings of its authors, or the records of the Philadelphia Convention, for clues as to their intent. The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the " Grand Convention at Philadelphia

There are two kinds of "intent analysis", reflecting two meanings of the word "intent". The first, a rule of common law construction during the Founding Era, is functional intent. The second is motivational intent. To understand the difference, one can use the metaphor of an architect who designs a Gothic church with flying buttresses. A flying buttress, or arc-boutant, is a specific type of Buttress usually found on a religious building such as a Cathedral. The functional intent of flying buttresses is to prevent the weight of the roof from spreading the walls and causing a collapse of the building, which can be inferred from examining the design as a whole. The motivational intent might be to create work for his brother-in-law who is a flying buttress subcontractor. Using original intent analysis of the first kind, we can discern that the language of Article III of the U.S. Constitution was to delegate to Congress the power to allocate original and appellate jurisdictions, and not to remove some jurisdiction, involving a constitutional question, from all courts. The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. That would suggest that the decision was wrong in Ex Parte McCardle^[11]

Original intent evolves

However, a number of problems inhere in intentionalism, and a fortiori when that theory is applied to the Constitution: most of the Founders did not leave discussions of what their intent was in 1787, and while a few did, there is no reason to think that they should be dispositive of what the rest thought. Ex parte McCardle, 74 US 506 ( 1868) is a United States Supreme Court decision that examines the extent of the Jurisdiction of the The theory went into freefall after a string of Law review articles attacking Robert Bork and the intentionalist process,^[12] prior to his abortive Senate confirmation hearing to the Supreme Court. A law review is a scholarly journal focusing on legal issues normally published by an organization of students at a Law school or through a Bar association. Robert Heron Bork (born March 1, 1927) is a conservative American legal scholar who advocates the judicial philosophy of Originalism. Specifically, original intent was seen as lacking good answers to three important questions: whether a diverse group such as the framers even had a single intent; if they did, whether it could be determined from two centuries' distance; and whether the framers themselves would have supported original intent. ^[13]

In response to this, a different strain of originalism, articulated by (among others) Antonin Scalia,^[14] Robert Bork,^[15] and Randy Barnett,^[16] came to the fore. (born March 11, 1936) is an American Jurist and the second most senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Robert Heron Bork (born March 1, 1927) is a conservative American legal scholar who advocates the judicial philosophy of Originalism. Randy E Barnett (born February 5, 1952) is a lawyer a law professor at Georgetown University Law Center, and a legal theorist in the United This is dubbed original meaning. Original meaning is the dominant form of the legal theory of Originalism today

Original meaning

Main article: Original meaning

Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes argued that interpreting what was meant by someone who wrote a law was not trying to "get into his mind" because the issue was "not what this man meant, but what those words would mean in the mouth of a normal speaker of English, using them in the circumstances in which they were used. Original meaning is the dominant form of the legal theory of Originalism today Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr ( March 8, 1841 &ndash March 6, 1935) was an American Jurist who served on the Supreme "^[17] This is the essential precept of modern Originalism.

The most robust and widely cited form of originalism, "original meaning" emphasizes how the text would have been understood by a reasonable person in the historical period during which the constitution was proposed, ratified, and first implemented. The reasonable person standard is often used legal term that originated in the development of the Common law. For example, economist Thomas Sowell notes that phrases like "due process" and "freedom of the press" had a long established meaning in British law, even before they were put into the Constitution of the United States. " Applying this form involves studying dictionaries and other writings of the time (for example, Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England; see Matters rendered moot by originalism, infra) to establish out what particular terms meant. The Commentaries on the Laws of England are an influential 18th century treatise on the Common law of England by Sir William Blackstone, originally See Methodology, infra).

Justice Scalia, one of the most forceful modern advocates for originalism, defines himself as belonging to the latter category:

"The theory of originalism treats a constitution like a statute, and gives it the meaning that its words were understood to bear at the time they were promulgated. (born March 11, 1936) is an American Jurist and the second most senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States You will sometimes hear it described as the theory of original intent. You will never hear me refer to original intent, because as I say I am first of all a textualist, and secondly an originalist. If you are a textualist, you don't care about the intent, and I don't care if the framers of the Constitution had some secret meaning in mind when they adopted its words. I take the words as they were promulgated to the people of the United States, and what is the fairly understood meaning of those words. "^[18]

Though there may be no evidence that the Founding Fathers intended the Constitution to be like a statute, this fact does not matter under Scalia's approach. Adherence to original meaning is explicitly divorced from the intent of the Founders; rather, the reasons for adhering to original meaning derive from other justifications, such as the argument that the understanding of the ratifiers (the people of the several States at the time of the adoption of the Constitution) should be controlling, as well as consequentialist arguments about original meaning's positive effect on rule of law.

Perhaps the clearest example to illustrate the importance of the difference between original intent and original understanding is to use the Twenty-seventh Amendment. The Twenty-seventh Amendment ( Amendment XXVII) is the most recent Amendment to the United States Constitution, having been ratified in 1992, The Twenty-seventh Amendment was proposed as part of the Bill of Rights in 1791, but failed to be ratified by the required number of states for two centuries, eventually being ratified in 1992. In the United States the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution are known Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) An original intent inquiry would ask what the framers understood the amendment to mean when it was written; an original meaning inquiry would ask what the plain meaning of the text was in 1992 when it was eventually ratified.

Semantic Originalism

"Semantic-originalism" is Ronald Dworkin's term for the theory that the original meaning of many statutes implies that those statutes prohibit certain acts widely considered not to be prohibited by the statutes at the time of their passages. Ronald Dworkin, QC, FBA (born December 11, 1931) is an American Legal philosopher, currently professor of Jurisprudence For example, while Scalia and other originalists often claim that the death penalty is not cruel and unusual punishment because at the time of the Eighth Amendment's passage it was a punishment believed to be neither cruel nor unusual, Dworkin and the semantic-originalists assert that if advances in moral philosophy (presuming that such advances are possible) reveal that the death penalty is in fact cruel and unusual, then the original meaning of the Eighth Amendment implies that the death penalty is unconstitutional. Those who deny semantic-originalism often retort either by invoking legal positivism or by arguing that, if it became a widely adopted jurisprudential theory, semantic-originalism would make it difficult to determine exactly what the law is at any given time, and thereby make the pandect de facto ex post facto. Legal positivism is a school of thought in Jurisprudence and the Philosophy of law.

Methodology

In The Original Meaning of the Recess Appointments Clause, Prof. Michael B. Rappaport described the methodology associated with the Original Meaning form of originalism as follows:

• "The task is to determine the original meaning of the language. . . that is, to understand how knowledgeable individuals would have understood this language. . . when it was drafted and ratified. Interpreters at the time would have examined various factors, including text, purpose, structure, and history. "

• "The most important factor is the text of the Clause. The modern interpreter should read the language in accord with the meaning it would have had in the late 1780s. Permissible meanings from that time include the ordinary meanings as well as more technical legal meanings words may have had. "

• "If the language has more than one interpretation, then one would look to purpose, structure, and history to help to clarify the ambiguity. Purpose, structure, and history provide evidence for determining which meaning of the language the authors would have intended. "
  • "The purpose of a Clause involves the objectives or goals that the authors would have sought to accomplish in enacting it. One common and permissible way to discern the purpose is to look to the evident or obvious purpose of a provision. Yet, purpose arguments can be dangerous, because it is easy for interpreters to focus on one purpose to the exclusion of other possible purposes without any strong arguments for doing so. "
  • "Historical evidence can reveal the values that were widely held by the Framers’ generation and that presumably informed their purposes when enacting constitutional provisions. History can also reveal their practices, which when widely accepted would be evidence of their values. "
  • "The structure of the document can also help to determine the purposes of the Framers. The decision to enact one constitutional clause may reveal the values of the Framers and thereby help us understand the purposes underlying a second constitutional clause. "

• "One additional source of evidence about the meaning of constitutional language is early constitutional interpretations by government officials or prominent commentators. . . . Such interpretations may provide evidence of the original meaning of the provisions, because early interpreters would have had better knowledge of contemporary word meanings, societal values, and interpretive techniques. Of course, early interpreters may also have had political and other incentives to misconstrue the document that should be considered. " (Id. at 5-7). Historians of course reject the last point, arguing that discerning original meaning requires access to many different evidence—such as statements from many people—that the people at the time did not have access to. Furthermore most of the evidence that would clarify the original meaning has been lost—only fragments remain in the form of materials that were written down and happen to survive for hundreds of years. Whenever there is ambiguity there probably is also a paucity of evidence to resolve that ambiguity.

Discussion

Philosophical underpinnings

Dissenting from the Court's ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, Justice Benjamin R. Curtis wrote:

"Whether such decrees are wise or unwise, whether their subjects are citizens or not, if they are usurpation of power, our rights are both infringed and endangered. Dred Scott v Sandford —whether or not they were slaves—could never be Citizens of the United States, and that the United States Congress Benjamin Robbins Curtis ( November 4, 1809 &ndash September 15, 1874) was an American Attorney and United States Supreme They are infringed because the power to decide and act is taken away from the people without their consent. They are endangered because in a constitutional government, every usurpation of power dangerously disorders the whole framework of the state. "

Originalism, in all its various forms, is predicated on a specific view of what the Constitution is, a view articulated by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison:

"[The constitution] organizes the government, and assigns to different departments their respective powers. John Marshall (September 24 1755 – July 6 1835 was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court a center of power Marbury v Madison, is a Landmark case in United States law. It formed the basis for the exercise of Judicial review in the United States under It may either stop here; or establish certain limits not to be transcended by those departments.

The government of the United States is of the latter description. The powers of the legislature are defined and limited; and that those limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the constitution is written. To what purpose are powers limited, and to what purpose is that limitation committed to writing; if these limits may, at any time, be passed by those intended to be restrained?"

Originalism assumes that Marbury is correct: the Constitution is the "operating charter" granted to government by the people, as per the preamble to the United States Constitution, and its written nature introduces a certain discipline into its interpretation. The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. Originalism further assumes that the need for such a written charter was derived from the perception, on the part of the Framers, of the abuses of power under the (unwritten) British Constitution, under which the Constitution was essentially whatever Parliament decided it should be. The constitution of the United Kingdom is the set of laws and principles under which the United Kingdom is governed In writing out a Constitution which explicitly granted the government certain authorities, and withheld from it others, and in which power was balanced between multiple agencies (the Presidency, two chambers of Congress and the Supreme Court at the national level, and state governments with similar branches), the intention of the Framers was to restrain government, originalists argue, and the value of such a document is nullified if that document's meaning is not fixed. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. Politics of the United States takes place in the framework of a presidential, Federal republic where the President of the United States (the Head of "If the constitution can mean anything, then the constitution means nothing".

Function of Constitutional jurisprudence

Dissenting in Romer v. Evans, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote:

Since the Constitution of the United States says nothing about this subject, it is left to be resolved by normal democratic means, including the democratic adoption of provisions in state constitutions. Romer v Evans, 517 US 620 ( 1996) was a United States Supreme Court case dealing with civil rights and state laws (born March 11, 1936) is an American Jurist and the second most senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States This Court has no business imposing upon all Americans the resolution favored by the elite class from which the Members of this institution are selected.

This statement summarizes the role for the court envisioned by Originalists, that is, that the Court parses what the general law and constitution says of a particular case or controversy, and when questions arise as to the meaning of a given constitutional provision, that provision should be given the meaning it was understood to mean when ratified. Reviewing the book Law's Quandary, Justice Scalia applied this formulation to some controversial topics routinely brought before the Court:

"It troubles Smith, but does not at all trouble me—in fact, it pleases me—that giving the words of the Constitution their normal meaning would “expel from the domain of legal issues . . . most of the constitutional disputes that capture our attention,” such as “Can a macho military educational institution dedicated to what is euphemistically called the ‘adversative’ method admit only men? Is there a right to abortion? Or to the assistance of a physician in ending one’s life?” If we should read English as English, Smith bemoans, “these questions would seemingly all have received the same answer: ‘No law on that one. ’”

That is precisely the answer they should have received: The federal Constitution says nothing on these subjects, which are therefore left to be governed by state law. "^[19]

In Marbury, Chief Justice Marshall established that the Supreme Court could invalidate laws which violated the Constitution (that is, judicial review), which helped establish the Supreme Court as having its own distinct sphere of influence within the Federal Government. The Chief Justice in many countries is the name for the presiding member of a Supreme Court in Commonwealth or other countries with an Anglo-Saxon justice system based on English John Marshall (September 24 1755 – July 6 1835 was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court a center of power Judicial review is the power of the courts to annul the acts of the executive and/or the legislative power where it finds them incompatible with a higher norm However, this power was itself balanced with the requirement that the Court could only invalidate legislation if it was unconstitutional. Originalists argue that the modern court no longer follows this requirement. They argue that—since U.S. v. Darby, in which Justice Stone (writing for a unanimous Court) ruled that the 10th Amendment had no legal meaning—the Court has increasingly taken to making rulings^[20] in which the Court has determined not what the Constitution says, but rather, the Court has sought to determine what is "morally correct" at this point in the nation's history, in terms of "the evolving standards of decency" (and considering "the context of international jurisprudence"), and then justified that determination through a "creative reading" of the text. This case is about the Commerce Clause. For the 1931 case about taxation of reduction of debt see United States v Harlan Fiske Stone ( October 11 1872 – April 22 1946) was an American Lawyer and jurist. This latter approach is frequently termed "the Living constitution"; Justice Scalia has inveighed that "the worst thing about the living constitution is that it will destroy the constitution. The Living Constitution is a concept in Constitutional interpretation which suggests that the Constitution should be seen as continually evolving with the society (born March 11, 1936) is an American Jurist and the second most senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States "^[21]

Matters rendered moot by originalism

Originalists are sharply critical of the use of "the evolving standards of decency"—a term which first appeared in Trop v. Dulles—and the opinions of courts in foreign countries (excepting treaties to which the United States is a signatory, per Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution) in Constitutional interpretation. Trop v Dulles, 356 US 86 (1958 was a federal court case in the United States that was filed in 1955 and finally decided by the Supreme Court The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States.

On an originalist interpretation, if the meaning of the Constitution is static, then any ex post facto information (such what American people, American judges, or any country's judges think about the state of the world today) is inherently valueless in interpreting the meaning of the Constitution, and should not form any part of constitutional jurisprudence; the Constitution is then fixed and has procedures defining how it can be changed.

The exception to the use of foreign law is the English common law, which originalists regard as setting the philosophical stage for the US Constitution and the American common and civil law. Hence, an originalist might cite Blackstone's Commentaries to establish the meaning of the term "due process" as it would have been understood at the time of ratification. Sir William Blackstone (originally pronounced Blexstun ( 10 July 1723 &ndash 14 February 1780) was an English Jurist and The Commentaries on the Laws of England are an influential 18th century treatise on the Common law of England by Sir William Blackstone, originally Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her

What originalism is not

Originalism is not "the theory of original intent"

As discussed previously, Original intent is only one theory in the Originalist family of theories. Many of the criticisms that are directed at original intent do not apply to other Originalist theories. It is possible to attack Originalism on the merits (as, for example, Cass Sunstein does occasionally).

Originalism is not conservatism

It is not accurate to say that originalism rejects change, or that originalists necessarily oppose the use of "the evolving standards of decency" in determining what the Constitution ought to say; rather, originalism rejects the concept that the courts should consider what the Constitution ought to say, but instead rule solely on what it does say. Originalists argue that the business of determining what the Constitution and the law ought to say is within the purview of the Congress, that changes to the law should come through the legislature, and changes to the constitution should be made per the amendment process outlined in Article V. Sometimes this approach yields results that please conservatives (see, for example, Justice Scalia's dissents in Roper or Romer,), and sometimes it yields results that do not (see, for example, Justice Scalia's dissents in BMW v. Gore or Hamdi v. Rumsfeld. Roper v Simmons, was a decision in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that it is unconstitutional to impose Capital punishment for crimes Romer v Evans, 517 US 620 ( 1996) was a United States Supreme Court case dealing with civil rights and state laws BMW of North America Inc v Gore, 517 US 559 (1996 was a United States Supreme Court case limiting Punitive damages under the Due Hamdi v Rumsfeld, 542 US 507 ( 2004) was a US Supreme Court decision reversing the dismissal of a Habeas corpus petition

Originalism is not always an answer in and of itself

Originalism is a means of constitutional interpretation, not constitutional construction; whenever "to describe [a] case is not to decide it,"^[22] it can only serve as a guide for what the Constitution says, not how that text applies to a given case or controversy. Thus, Originalists can reach different results in the same case; see, for example, United States v. Fordice; McIntyre; Hamdi, Gonzales v. Raich; National Cable & Telecommunications Assn. v. Brand X Internet Services. United States v Fordice, 505 US 717 (1992 is a United States Supreme Court case that resulted in an eight to one ruling that the eight Hamdi v Rumsfeld, 542 US 507 ( 2004) was a US Supreme Court decision reversing the dismissal of a Habeas corpus petition Gonzales v Raich (previously Ashcroft v Raich) 545 US 1 (2005 was a case in which the United States Supreme Court ruled on National Cable & Telecommunications Association et al v Brand X Internet Services et al According to The New Republic, although Scalia admits that Thomas "is really the only justice whose basic approach to the law is the same as mine", that magazine contends that "during the court's 2003-2004 term, Scalia and Thomas voted together in only 73 percent of cases, and six other pairs of justices agreed with each other more often than Thomas and Scalia did. The New Republic ( TNR) is an American Magazine of politics and the arts "

Pros and cons

Note that several of the arguments for and against Originalism should be read in conjunction with alternative views and rebuttals, presented in footnotes.

Arguments favoring originalism

• A constitution is approved by the authority of the people; originalism is required to maintain their sovereignty.

• If a constitution no longer meets the exigencies of a society's "evolving standard of decency", and the people wish to amend or replace the document, there is nothing stopping them from doing so in the manner which was envisioned by the drafters: through the amendment process. The "Living Constitution" approach would thus only be valuable in the absence of an amendment process. The Living Constitution is a concept in Constitutional interpretation which suggests that the Constitution should be seen as continually evolving with the society

• Originalism deters judges from unfettered discretion to inject their personal values into constitutional interpretation. Before one can reject originalism, one must find another criterion for determining the meaning of a provision, lest the "opinion of this Court [rest] so obviously upon nothing but the personal views of its members. "^[23] Scalia has averred that "there is no other" criteria to constrain judicial interpretation. ^[24]

• Originalism helps ensure predictability and protects against arbitrary changes in the interpretation of a constitution; to reject originalism implicitly repudiates the theoretical underpinning of another theory of stability in the law, stare decisis. Stare decisis is a common law doctrine under which judges are obligated to follow the precedents established in prior decisions

• If a constitution as interpreted can truly be changed at the decree of a judge, then "[t]he Constitution… is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary which they may twist and shape into any form they please," said Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence Hence, the purpose of the constitution would be defeated, and there would be no reason to have one.

• If a constitution is to be interpreted in light of "the evolving standards of decency," why, in most democratic countries, should the highest authority of judicial branch, e. g. the Supreme Court in U. S. , be the ones to have the final say over its interpretation? Is not the legislative branch which is elected, thereby more likely to be in touch with the current standards of decency, and therefore better placed to make such judgements? If originalism is wrong, then Marbury v. Madison — which holding underpins judicial review of constitutionality, that is, the meaning of the constitution — was wrongly decided, and two centuries of jurisprudence relying on it is thereby on shaky ground. Marbury v Madison, is a Landmark case in United States law. It formed the basis for the exercise of Judicial review in the United States under

• Sometimes the Ninth Amendment of the U. S. Constitution is cited as an example by originalism critics to attack Originalism. Self-described originalists have been at least as wiling as judges of other schools to give the Ninth Amendment no substantive meaning or to treat it as surplusage duplicative of the Tenth Amendment. The Tenth Amendment ( Amendment X) of the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, was ratified on December 15, Bork described it as a "Rorshach blot" and claimed that the courts had no power to identify or protect the rights supposedly protected by it. Scalia held similarly: [T]he Constitution's refusal to "deny or disparage" other rights is far removed from affirming any one of them, and even afarther removed from authorizing judges to identify what they might be, and to enforce the judges' list against laws duly enacted by the people. " Troxel V Granville 530 US 57 (2000) (Scalia, J. Dissenting). Scalia's interpretation renders the Ninth Amendment entirely unenforcable and moot, which is clearly contrary to its original intent. However, this is a criticism of specific originalists -- and a criticism that they are insufficiently originalist — not a criticism of originalism. The theory of originalism as a whole is entirely compatible with the Ninth Amendment. Alternative theories of originalism such as Randy Barnett's[3] give the Ninth Amendment more practical effect than many other schools of legal thought do.

• Contrary to critics of originalism, originalists do not always agree upon an answer to a constitutional question, nor is their any requirement that they have to. There is room for disagreement as to what original meaning was, and even more as to how that original meaning applies to the situation before the court. But the originalist at least knows what he is looking for: the original meaning of the text. Usually, that is easy to discern and simple to apply. Sometimes there will be disagreement regarding the original meaning; and sometimes there will be disagreement as to how that original meaning applies to new and unforeseen phenomena. How, for example, does the First Amendment of the U. S. constitution guarantee of “the freedom of speech” apply to new technologies that did not exist when the guarantee was codified - to sound trucks, or to government-licensed over-the-air television? In such new fields the Court must follow the trajectory of the First Amendment, so to speak, to determine what it requires, and that enterprise is not entirely cut-and-dried, but requires the exercise of judgment. But the difficulties and uncertainties of determining original meaning and applying it to modern circumstances are negligible compared with the difficulties and uncertainties of the philosophy which says that the constitution changes; that the very act which it once prohibited it now permits, and which it once permitted it now forbids; and that the key to that change is unknown and unknowable. The originalist, if he does not have all the answers, has many of them. ^[25]

• If the people come to believe that the constitution is not a text like other texts; if it means, not what it says or what it was understood to mean, but what it should mean, in light of the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society,” they will look for qualifications other than impartiality, judgment, and lawyerly acumen in those whom they elect to interpret it. More specifically, they will look for people who agree with them as to what those evolving standards have evolved to; who agree with them as to what the constitution ought to be. If the courts are free to write the constitution anew, they will write it the way the majority wants; the appointment and confirmation process will see to that. This suggests the end of the Bill of Rights, whose meaning will be committed to the very body it was meant to protect against: the majority. By trying to make the constitution do everything that needs doing from age to age, we shall have caused it to do nothing at all. ^[26]

Arguments opposing originalism

• Originalism leads to unacceptable results. For example, interpreting the 14th Amendment only to protect liberty recognized at the time it was ratified provides no protection to groups who were discriminated against at that time, such as women and homosexuals. With originalism, the courts are extremely limited in their power to protect against discrimination.

• Moreover, if one is then to look at the interpretation--or, 'meaning'--which inheres at the particular time period, the question becomes: why is that reading the essential one?. Or, restated, an essential reading, then, is owing to whom? Is it owing, then, to the meaning derived by the average person at that time? The collective intent of the voters who passed it? Or is it possible that they indeed entrusted the framers with the authority to draft the constitution, i. e. , that the intent of the drafters should remain relevant? Originalism faces hermeneutic difficulties in understanding the intentions of the Founding Fathers, who lived 200 years ago (original intent), or the context of the time in which they lived (original meaning). Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts Justice Scalia accepts this problem: "It's not always easy to figure out what the provision meant when it was adopted. . . I do not say [originalism] is perfect. I just say it's better than anything else. " (Source)

• An alternative form of the above argument is that legal controversy rarely arises over constitutional text with uncontroversial interpretations. How, then, does one determine the original "meaning" of an originally broad and ambiguous phrase? Thus, originalists often conceal their choice between levels of generality or possible alternative meanings as required by the original meaning when there is considerable room for disagreement.

• It could be argued — as, for example, Justice Breyer has — that constitutions are meant to endure over time, and in order to do so, their interpretation must therefore be more flexible and responsive to changing circumstances than the amendment process. Stephen Gerald Breyer (born August 15 1938 is an American Attorney and Jurist.

• It is further argued that the specific intent in drafting the United Stated Constitution was to create a broad and flexible document which would be interpreted in this manner. As Edmund Randolph set out at the Constitutional Convention, the goal was specifically "[t]o insert essential principles only; lest the operations of government should be clogged by rendering those provisions permanent and unalterable, which ought to be accommodated to times and events. Edmund Jenings Randolph ( August 10, 1753 September 12, 1813) was an American attorney, Governor of Virginia " The basis for now scrupulously trying to recreate 18th century meaning, thus, is often called into question, when it appears that the Constitution was written specifically to avoid binding future generations in this way.

• This view is also supported by the fact that a constitution itself is silent on the appropriate method of constitutional interpretation. For example, had the framers intended for the U. S. Constitution to be interpreted in a specific manner they could have indicated as much in the text of the Constitution itself. The framers themselves, most of whom were lawyers and legal scholars, would presumably have known the confusion their lack of doing so would cause. The absence of any such guidance suggests either implicit support for contemporary interpretation, or that they could not agree on the correct method, neither of which should bind future generations.

• The Ninth Amendment is the exception in that it does establish a rule of constitutional interpretation ("The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. "). When interpreted using original intent or original meaning, it clearly protects rights which the founders had not thought to list explicitly -- a direct rebuke to all Textualist or Formalist legal schools including "originalism".

• Originalism allows the "dead hand" of prior generations to control important contemporary issues down to an extraordinary and unnecessary level of detail. While everyone agrees that broad constitutional principles should control, if the question is whether abortion is a fundamental right, why should past centuries-old intentions be controlling? The originalist's distinction between original meaning and original intention here is also unclear, due to the difficulty of discussing "meaning" in terms of specific details that the Constitutional text does not clarify.

• In writing such a broad phrase such as "cruel and unusual," it is implausible that the framers intended for its very specific meaning at that time to be permanently controlling. The purpose of phrases such as "cruel and unusual," rather, is specifically not to specify which punishments are forbidden, but to create a flexible test that can be applied over future centuries. Stated alternatively, there is no reason to think the framers have a privileged position in making this determination of what is cruel and unusual; while their ban on cruel punishment is binding on us, their understanding of the scope of the concept 'cruel' need not be.

• If applied scrupulously, originalism requires the country either to continually reratify the Constitution in order to retain contemporary standards for tests such as "cruel and unusual punishment" or "unreasonable searches and seizures," or to change the language to specifically state that these tests shall be administered according to the standards of the society administering the test. Critics of originalism believe that the first approach is too burdensome, while the second is already inherently implied.

• Originalism, as applied by its most prominent proponents, is sometimes pretext (or, at least, the "rules" of originalism are sometimes "bent") to reach desired ends, no less so than The Living Constitution. The Living Constitution is a concept in Constitutional interpretation which suggests that the Constitution should be seen as continually evolving with the society For example, Prof. Jack Balkin has averred that neither the original understanding nor the original intent of the 14th Amendment is compatible with the result implicitly reached by the Originalist Justices Thomas and Scalia in their willingness to join Chief Justice Rehnquist's concurrence in Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000). Jack M Balkin (born August 13, 1956 in Kansas City, Missouri) is the Knight Professor of Constitutional Law and the Bush v Gore,, was a United States Supreme Court case decided on December 12, 2000. Furthermore, while both Scalia and Thomas have objected on originalist grounds to the use of foreign law by the court (see, respectively, Thompson v. Oklahoma, 487 U.S. 815, 868 (1988), and Knight v. Thompson v Oklahoma, 487 US 815 ( 1988) was the first case since the moratorium on Capital punishment was lifted in the United States Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) Florida, 528 U.S. 990 (1999)), both have allowed it to seep into their opinions at one time or another (see, respectively, McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Committee, 514 U.S. 334, 381 (1995) and Holder v. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Hall, 512 U.S. 874, 904 (1994))

• Originalists often argue that where a constitution is silent, judges should not "read rights into" it. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Rights implicating abortion, sex and sexual orientation equality, and capital punishment are often thus described as issues that the Constitution does not speak to, and hence should not be recognized by the judiciary. An Sexual orientation is believed to refer to "an enduring pattern of emotional romantic and/or sexual attractions to men women or both sexes The Equal Protection Clause, part of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, provides that "no state shall… deny to any person Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. Yet, the Ninth Amendment, provides that "[t]he enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Amendment IX (the Ninth Amendment) to the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, addresses rights of the people that are " Original intent thus calls for just the opposite of what the text of the Constitution and "original intent" of the founders arguably affirm, creating an inconsistency in the practice of at least one branch of Originalism.

References

• Originalism: The Quarter-Century of Debate (2007) ISBN 1596980508
• Jack N. Rakove. Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution (1997) ISBN 0394578589
• Keith E. Whittington, Constitutional Interpretation: Textual Meaning, Original Intent, and Judicial Review (2001) ISBN 070061141X

Footnotes

See also

• Constitution in exile
• Judicial activism
• Legal formalism
• Living Constitution
• Strict constructionism
• Bad originalism

External links

• Justice Scalia lecture at CUA, discussing originalism (1996)
• Justice Scalia lecture at Woodrow Wilson Center, comparing and contrasting originalism from the "living constitution" approach (2005)
• Legal Theory Lexicon entry on Originalism
• Originalism: The Lesser Evil, by Antonin Scalia (57 U. Morrison v Olson, 487 US 654 ( 1988) was a case that went before the Supreme Court of the United States. Atkins v Virginia,, is a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled 6-3 that executing the Mentally retarded violates the Eighth This article does not refer to The Constitution in Exile, a book by Judge Andrew Napolitano. Judicial activism is a pejorative term for the misuse of judicial power and is a neologism for the older classical term " board judicial review. Legal formalism is a positivist view in Jurisprudence and the Philosophy of law. The Living Constitution is a concept in Constitutional interpretation which suggests that the Constitution should be seen as continually evolving with the society Strict constructionism refers to a particular legal philosophy of Judicial interpretation that limits or restricts judicial interpretation Bad originalism refers to one or another kind of corruption of Originalism, and may well be a form of Judicial activism. Cin. L. Rev. 849)
• An Originalism for Nonoriginalists, by Randy Barnett
• "Original Intent and Purpose of the Second Amendment" GunCite. com
• "Original Intent and The Free Exercise of Religion" Joseph A. Zavaletta, Jr. , Esq
• "Constitutional Issues of Taxation" Original Intent. org
• Trumping Precedent with Original Meaning: Not as Radical as It Sounds, by Randy Barnett
• The Founders Constitution Founding-era materials
• "Judicial Activism Reconsidered", by Thomas Sowell
• B. Wittes, "What Is 'Cruel and Unusual?'"

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