Organic chemistry is a discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon and sulfur. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called Organic synthesis is a special branch of Chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of Organic compounds via Organic reactions Organic A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Abundance Owing to their high Reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or as Ions Halide ions and oxoanions Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 [1][2] [3]
The original definition of "organic" chemistry came from the misconception that organic compounds were always related to life processes. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism However, organic molecules can be produced by processes not involving life, and not only organic compounds support life on Earth, as life as we know it also depends on inorganic chemistry; for example, many enzymes rely on transition metals such as iron and copper; and materials such as shells, teeth and bones are part organic, part inorganic in composition. Inorganic chemistry is the branch of Chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of Inorganic compounds This field covers all Chemical compounds Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins In Chemistry, the term transition metal (sometimes also called a transition element) has two possible meanings It commonly refers to any element in Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Apart from elemental carbon, only certain classes of carbon compounds (such as oxides, carbonates, and carbides) are conventionally considered inorganic. An oxide is a Chemical compound containing at least one Oxygen atom as well as at least one other element In Chemistry, a carbonate is a salt or Ester of Carbonic acid. For the Software development tool targeting the Symbian OS, see Carbide Biochemistry deals mainly with the natural chemistry of biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and sugars. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose.
Because of their unique properties, multi-carbon compounds exhibit extremely large variety and the range of application of organic compounds is enormous. They form the basis of, or are important constituents of many products (paints, plastics, food, explosives, drugs, petrochemicals, to name but a few) and (apart from a very few exceptions) they form the basis of all earthly life processes. Paint is any Liquid, liquifiable or mastic composition which after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an opaque Solid Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Petrochemicals are chemical products made from raw materials of Petroleum or other Hydrocarbon origin
The different shapes and chemical reactivities of organic molecules provide an astonishing variety of functions, like those of enzyme catalysts in biochemical reactions of live systems. Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst
Current (as of 2008) trends in organic chemistry include chiral synthesis, green chemistry, microwave chemistry, fullerenes and microwave spectroscopy. Asymmetric synthesis, also called chiral synthesis, enantioselective synthesis or stereoselective synthesis, is Organic synthesis which Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry is a chemical philosophy encouraging the design of products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous Microwave chemistry is the science of applying Microwave irradiation to chemical reactions. "C60" and "C-60" redirect here For other uses see C60 (disambiguation. Rotational spectroscopy or microwave spectroscopy studies the absorption and emission Electromagnetic radiation (typically in the Microwave
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Historical highlights
- See also: History of chemistry
At the beginning of the nineteenth century chemists generally thought that compounds from living organisms were too complicated in structure to be capable of artificial synthesis from non-living things, and that a 'vital force' or vitalism conferred the characteristics of living beings on this form of matter. Friedrich Wöhler (31 July 1800 - 23 September 1882 was a German Chemist, best-known for his synthesis of Urea, but also the first to isolate several The history of Chemistry begins with the discovery of Fire, then Metallurgy which allowed purification of metals and the making of alloys as well as the exploitation In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products Vitalism, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary is a doctrine that the functions of a living organism are due to a vital principle distinct from physicochemical They named these compounds 'organic', and preferred to direct their investigations toward inorganic materials that seemed more promising.
Organic chemistry received a boost when it was realized that these compounds could be treated in ways similar to inorganic compounds and could be created in the laboratory by means other than 'vital force'. Traditionally inorganic compounds are considered to be of mineral not biological origin Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkali. Michel Eugène Chevreul ( August 31, 1786 &ndash April 9, 1889) was a French Chemist whose work with Fatty acids SOAP (see below for name and origins is a protocol for exchanging XML -based messages over Computer networks normally using Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal He separated the different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without 'vital force'. In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler first manufactured the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine, from the inorganic ammonium cyanate NH4OCN, in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis. The year 1828 ( MDCCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Friedrich Wöhler (31 July 1800 - 23 September 1882 was a German Chemist, best-known for his synthesis of Urea, but also the first to isolate several Urea is an Organic compound with the Chemical formula ( N[[hydrogen H]]22 C[[oxygen O]] Urine is a liquid waste product of the body secreted by the Kidneys by a process of filtration from Blood and Excreted through the Urethra. The cyanate Ion is an Anion consisting of one Oxygen Atom, one Carbon atom and one Nitrogen atom − in that The Wöhler synthesis is the conversion of Ammonium Cyanate into Urea. Although Wöhler was, at this time as well as afterwards, cautious about claiming that he had thereby destroyed the theory of vital force, most have looked to this event as the turning point.
A great next step was when in 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine, again accidentally came to manufacture the organic dye now called Perkin's mauve, which by generating a huge amount of money greatly increased interest in organic chemistry. Sir William Henry Perkin, FRS ( March 12, 1838 July 14, 1907) was an English Chemist best known for his Quinine (ˈkwaɪnaɪn kwɪˈniːn ˈkwiːniːn is a natural white Crystalline Alkaloid having Antipyretic (fever-reducing antimalarial, A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied Mauveine, also known as Aniline Purple and Perkin's mauve, was the first synthetic organic Dye. Another step was the laboratory preparation of DDT by Othmer Zeidler in 1874, but the insecticide properties of this compound were not discovered until much later. DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms
The crucial breakthrough for the theory of organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently and simultaneously by Friedrich August Kekule and Archibald Scott Couper in 1858. Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz (also August Kekulé) (7 September 1829 &ndash 13 July 1896 was a German organic chemist. Archibald Scott Couper (31 March 1831 &ndash 11 March 1892 was a Scottish chemist who proposed an early theory of chemical structure and bonding Both men suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions. In Chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valency number, is a measure of the number of Chemical bonds formed by the Atoms
The history of organic chemistry continues with the discovery of petroleum and its separation into fractions according to boiling ranges. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit A fraction in Chemistry is a quantity collected from a sample or batch of a substance in a fractionating Separation process. The conversion of different compound types or individual compounds by various chemical processes created the petroleum chemistry leading to the birth of the petrochemical industry, which successfully manufactured artificial rubbers, the various organic adhesives, the property-modifying petroleum additives, and plastics. Petrochemicals are chemical products made from raw materials of Petroleum or other Hydrocarbon origin Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products
The pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when acetylsalicylic acid (more commonly referred to as aspirin) manufacture was started in Germany by Bayer. Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid (ASA (əˌsɛtɨlsælɨˌsɪlɨk ˈæsɨd is a Salicylate drug, often used as an Analgesic to relieve For other uses see Bayer (disambiguation or Beyer or Buyer. Bayer AG (German ˈbaɪə () is a German The first time a drug was systematically improved was with arsphenamine (Salvarsan). Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan and 606, is a drug that was used to treat Syphilis and trypanosomiasis. Numerous derivatives of the dangerously toxic atoxyl were systematically synthesized and tested by Paul Ehrlich and his group, and the compound with best effectiveness and toxicity characteristics was selected for production. Atoxyl is the name of a drug consisting of p -aminophenylarsenic acid Paul Ehrlich ( March 14, 1854 &ndash August 20, 1915) was a German Scientist who won the 1908 Nobel
Early examples of organic reactions and applications were serendipitous, such as Perkin's accidental discovery of Perkin's mauve. Serendipity is the effect by which one accidentally discovers something fortunate especially while looking for something else entirely However, from the 20th century, the progress of organic chemistry allowed for synthesis of specifically selected compounds or even molecules designed with specific properties, as in drug design. Drug design is the approach of finding drugs by design based on their Biological targets Typically a drug target is a key Molecule involved in a particular The process of finding new synthesis routes for a given compound is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds started with urea, increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol, and in 1907, total synthesis was commercialized the first time by Gustaf Komppa with camphor. In principle a total synthesis is the complete Chemical synthesis of complex organic Molecules from simpler pieces usually without the aid of biological Urea is an Organic compound with the Chemical formula ( N[[hydrogen H]]22 C[[oxygen O]] Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Terpineol is a naturally occurring monoterpene Alcohol that has been isolated from a variety of sources such as Cajuput oil, Pine oil, and Gustaf Komppa (1867-1949 was a Finnish chemist best known for a world-first in commercializing Total synthesis, that of Camphor in 1903 } Camphor is a waxy white or transparent solid with a strong aromatic odor Pharmaceutical benefits have been substantial, for example cholesterol-related compounds have opened ways to synthesis of complex human hormones and their modified derivatives. Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increasing, with examples such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12. Submit to get this template or go to TemplateChembox_simple_organic. Today's targets feature tens of stereogenic centers that must be synthesized correctly with asymmetric synthesis. A stereocenter, or stereogenic centre, is any Atom in a Molecule bearing groups such that an interchanging of any two groups leads to a Stereoisomer Asymmetric synthesis, also called chiral synthesis, enantioselective synthesis or stereoselective synthesis, is Organic synthesis which
Biochemistry, the chemistry of living organisms, their structure and interactions in vitro and inside living systems, has only started in the 20th century, opening up a brand new chapter of organic chemistry with enormous scope. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as In vitro ( Latin: within the glass refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a controlled environment outside of a living Organism
Classification of organic substances
Description and nomenclature
Classification is not possible without having a full description of the individual compounds. In contrast with inorganic chemistry, in which describing a chemical compound can be achieved by simply enumerating the chemical symbols of the elements present in the compound together with the number of these elements in the molecule, in organic chemistry the relative arrangement of the atoms within a molecule must be added for a full description. Inorganic chemistry is the branch of Chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of Inorganic compounds This field covers all Chemical compounds A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus.
One way of describing the molecule is by drawing its structural formula. The structural formula of a Chemical compound is a graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are arranged Because of molecular complexity, simplified systems of chemical notation have been developed. The latest version is the line-angle formula, which achieves simplicity without introducing ambiguity. The skeletal formula of an Organic compound is a shorthand representation of its molecular structure. In this system, the endpoints and intersections of each line represent one carbon, and hydrogens can either be notated or assumed to be present by implication. Some disadvantages of chemical notation are that they are not easily described by words and they are not easily printable. These problems have been addressed by describing molecular structures using organic nomenclature . The IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is a systematic method of naming organic chemical compounds as recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied
Because of the difficulties arising from the very large number and variety of organic compounds, chemists realized early on that the establishment of an internationally accepted system of naming organic compounds was of paramount importance. The Geneva Nomenclature was born in 1892 as a result of a number of international meetings on the subject.
It was also realized that as the family of organic compounds grew, the system would have to be expanded and modified. This task was ultimately taken on by the International Union on Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC) (aɪjuːpæk or ay-yoo-pec) is an international Non-governmental organization Recognizing the fact that in the branch of biochemistry the complexity of organic structures increases, the IUPAC organization joined forces with the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, IUBMB, to produce a list of joint recommendations on nomenclature. The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology ( IUBMB) is an international Non-governmental organisation concerned with Biochemistry and
Later, as the numbers and complexities of organic molecules grew, new recommendations were made within IUPAC for simplification. The first such recommendation was presented in 1951 when a cyclic benzene structure was named a cyclophane. cyclophane is a Hydrocarbon consisting of an Aromatic unit (typically a Benzene ring and an Aliphatic chain that forms a Bridge Later recommendations extended the method to the simplification of other complex cyclic structures, including heterocyclics, and named such structures phanes. Phanes are sub-structures of highly complex organic molecules introduced for simplification of the naming of these highly complex molecules
For ordinary communication, to spare a tedious description, the official IUPAC naming recommendations are not always followed in practice except when it is necessary to give a concise definition to a compound, or when the IUPAC name is simpler (viz. ethanol versus ethyl alcohol). Otherwise the common or trivial name may be used, often derived from the source of the compound. In Chemistry and Zoology, a trivial name (also a Common name or vernacular name) is a non- Systematic name.
In summary, organic substances are classified by their molecular structural arrangement and by what other atoms are present along with the chief (carbon) constituent in their makeup, whilst in a structural formula, hydrogen is implicitly assumed to occupy all free valences of an appropriate carbon atom which remain after accounting for branching, other element(s) and/or multiple bonding.
Hydrocarbons and functional groups
Classification normally starts with the hydrocarbons: compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen. For sub-classes see below. Other elements present themselves in atomic configurations called functional groups which have decisive influence on the chemical and physical characteristics of the compound; thus those containing the same atomic formations have similar characteristics, which may be: miscibility with water, acidity/alkalinity, chemical reactivity, oxidation resistance, and others. Miscibility is a term commonly used in Chemistry that refers to the property of Liquids to mix in all proportions forming a Homogeneous Solution In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are Alkalinity or AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the Equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Some functional groups are also radicals, similar to those in inorganic chemistry, defined as polar atomic configurations which pass during chemical reactions from one chemical compound into another without change. In Chemistry, radicals (often referred to as free radicals) are atoms molecules or ions with Unpaired electrons on an otherwise Open shell "Polar molecule" and "Non-polar" redirect here
Some of the elements of the functional groups (O, S, N, halogens) may stand alone and the group name is not strictly appropriate, but because of their decisive effect on the way they modify the characteristics of the hydrocarbons in which they are present they are classed with the functional groups, and their specific effect on the properties lends excellent means for characterisation and classification. Abundance Owing to their high Reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or as Ions Halide ions and oxoanions
Referring to the hydrocarbon types below, many, if not all of the functional groups which are typically present within aliphatic compounds are also represented within the aromatic and alicyclic group of compounds, unless they are dehydrated, which would lead to non-reacting co-optional groups. In Organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of Atoms within Molecules that are responsible for the characteristic Chemical reactions In Organic chemistry, compounds composed of Carbon and Hydrogen are divided into two classes Aromatic compounds which contain Benzene rings An alicyclic compound is an Organic compound that is both Aliphatic and cyclic
Reference is made here again to the organic nomenclature, which shows an extensive (if not comprehensive) number of classes of compounds according to the presence of various functional groups, based on the IUPAC recommendations, but also some based on trivial names. The IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is a systematic method of naming organic chemical compounds as recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC) (aɪjuːpæk or ay-yoo-pec) is an international Non-governmental organization In Chemistry and Zoology, a trivial name (also a Common name or vernacular name) is a non- Systematic name. Putting compounds in sub-classes becomes more difficult when more than one functional group is present.
Two overarching chain type categories exist: Open Chain aliphatic compounds and Closed Chain cyclic compounds. In Organic chemistry, compounds composed of Carbon and Hydrogen are divided into two classes Aromatic compounds which contain Benzene rings In Organic chemistry, a cyclic compound is a compound in which a series of carbon atoms are connected to form a loop or ring Those in which both open chain and cyclic parts are present are normally classed with the latter.
Aliphatic compounds
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups, homologous series according to their state of saturation: paraffins alkanes without any double or triple bonds, olefins alkenes with double bonds, which can be mono-olefins with a single double bond, di-olefins, or di-enes with two, or poly-olefins with more. In Organic chemistry, compounds composed of Carbon and Hydrogen are divided into two classes Aromatic compounds which contain Benzene rings In Chemistry, a homologous series is a series of Organic compounds with a similar General formula, possessing similar chemical properties due to the presence In Chemistry, saturation has five different meanings In Physical chemistry, saturation is the point at which a Solution of a substance Alkanes, also known as Paraffins are Chemical compounds that consist only of the elements Carbon (C and Hydrogen (H (i In Organic chemistry, an alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated Chemical compound containing at least one Carbon The third group with a triple bond is named after the name of the shortest member of the homologue series as the acetylenes alkynes. Alkynes are Hydrocarbons that have at least one Triple bond between two Carbon atoms with the formula CnH2n-2. The rest of the group is classed according to the functional groups present.
From another aspect aliphatics can be straight chain or branched chain compounds, and the degree of branching also affects characteristics, like octane number or cetane number in petroleum chemistry. The octane rating is a measure of the resistance of Gasoline and other Fuels to Detonation ( Engine knocking) in spark-ignition Cetane number or CN is a measurement of the Combustion quality of Diesel fuel during compression ignition
Aromatic and alicyclic compounds
Cyclic compounds can, again, be saturated or unsaturated. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 Because of the bonding angle of carbon, the most stable configurations contain six carbon atoms, but while rings with five carbon atoms are also frequent, others are rarer. The cyclic hydrocarbons divide into alicyclics and aromatics (also called arenes). An alicyclic compound is an Organic compound that is both Aliphatic and cyclic
Of the alicyclic compounds the cycloalkanes do not contain multiple bonds, whilst the cycloalkenes and the cycloalkynes do. An alicyclic compound is an Organic compound that is both Aliphatic and cyclic Cycloalkanes (also called naphthenes, especially if from Petroleum sources are types of Alkanes which have one or more rings of Carbon Atoms A cycloalkene or cycloolefin is a type of Alkene Hydrocarbon which contains a closed ring of Carbon Atoms but has no aromatic Typically this latter type only exists in the form of large rings, called macrocycles. A macrocycle is as defined by IUPAC, "a cyclic macromolecule or a macromolecular cyclic portion of a molecule The simplest member of the cycloalkane family is the three-membered cyclopropane. Cyclopropane is a Cycloalkane Molecule with the molecular formula C3H6 consisting of three Carbon Atoms linked to
Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. A chemically conjugated system is a system of atoms Covalently bonded with alternating single and multiple (e One of the simplest examples of these is benzene, the structure of which was formulated by Kekulé who first proposed the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its structure. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz (also August Kekulé) (7 September 1829 &ndash 13 July 1896 was a German organic chemist. In chemistry delocalized electrons are Electrons in a Molecule that are not associated with a single Atom or to a Covalent bond. Resonance in Chemistry is a theory used to represent and model certain types of non-classical Molecular structures Resonance is a key component For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer. Particular instability (antiaromaticity) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons.
The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms are present, which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring (exocyclic) or as a member of the ring itself (endocyclic). In the case of the latter, the ring is termed a heterocycle. Pyridine and furan are examples of aromatic heterocycles while piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are the corresponding alicyclic heterocycles. Pyridine is a Chemical compound with the formula C5[[Hydrogen H5]] N. Furan, also known as furane and furfuran, is a heterocyclic Organic compound. Piperidine is an Organic compound with the molecular formula (CH25NH "THF" redirects here For other uses see THF (disambiguation. The heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter being particularly common in biochemical systems.
Rings can fuse with other rings on an edge to give polycyclic compounds. In Organic chemistry, a polycyclic compound is a Cyclic compound with more than one hydrocarbon loop or ring structures ( Benzene rings. The purine nucleoside bases are notable polycyclic aromatic heterocycles. Purine ( 1) is a heterocyclic Aromatic Organic compound, consisting of a Pyrimidine ring fused to an Imidazole ring Rings can also fuse on a "corner" such that one atom (almost always carbon) has two bonds going to one ring and two to another. Such compounds are termed spiro and are important in a number of natural products. A spiro compound is a Bicyclic Organic compound with rings connected through just one atom A natural product is a Chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism - found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical
Polymers
One important property of carbon in organic chemistry is that it can form certain compounds, the individual molecules of which are capable of attaching themselves to one another, thereby forming a chain or a network. A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene The process is called polymerization and the chains or networks polymers, while the source compound is a monomer. In Polymer chemistry, polymerization is a process of reacting Monomer Molecules together in a Chemical reaction to form three-dimensional networks A monomer (from Greek mono "one" and meros "part" is a small Molecule that may become chemically bonded to other Two main groups of polymers exist: those artificially manufactured are referred to as industrial polymers [4] or synthetic polymers and those naturally occurring as biopolymers. Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products Biopolymers are a class of Polymers produced by living organisms
Since the invention of the first artificial polymer, bakelite, the family has quickly grown with the invention of others. Bakelite (ˈbеɪkɨlaɪt is a material based on the thermosetting Phenol formaldehyde resin polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride developed in 1907–1909 by Common synthetic organic polymers are polyethylene or polythene, polypropylene, nylon, teflon or PTFE, polystyrene, polyesters, polymethylmethacrylate (commonly known as perspex or plexiglas) polyvinylchloride or PVC, and polyisobutylene an important artificial or synthetic rubber also the polymerised butadiene, a rubber component. Polyethylene or polythene ( IUPAC name poly(ethene) is a Thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (notably the Polypropylene or polypropene ( PP) is a Thermoplastic Polymer, made by the Chemical industry and used in a wide variety of applications Overview Nylon is a Thermoplastic silky material first used commercially in a nylon- Bristled Toothbrush (1938 followed more famously by In Chemistry, poly(tetrafluoroethene or poly(tetrafluoroethylene ( PTFE) is a synthetic Fluoropolymer which finds numerous applications Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene Polyester is a category of Polymers which contain the Ester Functional group in their main chain Poly(methyl methacrylate ( PMMA) or poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate is a Thermoplastic and transparent Plastic. Butyl rubber &mdashalso known as polyisobutylene and PIB (C4H8n is a Synthetic rubber, a Homopolymer of
The examples are generic terms, and many varieties of each of these may exist, with their physical characteristics fine tuned for a specific use. Changing the conditions of polymerisation changes the chemical composition of the product by altering chain length, or branching, or the tacticity. The degree of polymerization, or DP is the number of repeat units in an average Polymer chain at time t in a Polymerization reaction. A Branch is a part of a woody plant Branch or branching may also refer to Computing Branch (computer science Tacticity (from Greek 'taktikos' of or relating to arrangement or order is the relative Stereochemistry of adjacent chiral centers within a Macromolecule With a single monomer as a start the product is a homopolymer. A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds Further, secondary component(s) may be added to create a heteropolymer (co-polymer) and the degree of clustering of the different components can also be controlled. A heteropolymer or copolymer is a Polymer derived from two (or more Monomeric species as opposed to a Homopolymer where only one monomer is Physical characteristics, such as hardness, density, mechanical or tensile strength, abrasion resistance, heat resistance, transparency, colour, etc. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Tensile strength \sigma_{UTS} or S_U is the Stress at which a material breaks or permanently deforms will depend on the final composition.
Biomolecules
Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied by biochemists. A biomolecule is any organic Molecule that is produced by living Organisms including large Polymeric molecules such as Proteins Typical biochemists study chemical processes and chemical transformations in living organisms Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living organisms. Some are long-chain biopolymers, and these include proteins, DNA, RNA and the polysaccharides such as starches in animals and celluloses in plants. Biopolymers are a class of Polymers produced by living organisms Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units Polysaccharides are relatively complex Carbohydrates They are Polymers made up of many Monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic bonds Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 The other main classes are amino acids (monomer building blocks of proteins), carbohydrates (which includes the polysaccharides), the nucleic acids (which include DNA and RNA as polymers), and the lipids. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble In addition, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in energy production through the Krebs cycle, and produces isoprene, the most common hydrocarbon in animals. The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle Isoprene is a common synonym for the chemical compound 2-methylbuta-13-diene Isoprenes in animals form the important steroid structural (cholesterol) and steroid hormone compounds; and in plants form terpenes, terpenoids, some alkaloids, and a unique set of structural hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present in latex sap which is the basis for making rubber. A steroid is a Terpenoid Lipid characterized by a Carbon skeleton with four fused rings generally arranged in a 6-6-6-5 fashion Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian Terpenes are a large and varied class of Hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants particularly Conifers though also by some insects such The terpenoids, sometimes referred to as isoprenoids, are a large and diverse class of naturally-occurring organic chemicals similar to Terpenes derived This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. LaTeX (ˈleɪtɛ
Buckyballs
Buckminsterfullerenes, also known as Buckyballs, are amongst the most fascinating molecules engineered by organic chemists to date. "C60" and "C-60" redirect here For other uses see C60 (disambiguation. Their spherical structure manifests many electronic properties and new research in the synonymous carbon nanotubes is fascinating.
Fullerenes are rather oddly classed with organic chemistry as they do not fit the definition. However, it seems, that the classification is justified by the fact that they are a diversion for organic chemists.
Others
Organic compounds containing bonds of carbon to nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens are not normally grouped separately. Others are sometimes put into major groups within organic chemistry and discussed under titles such as organosulfur chemistry, organometallic chemistry, organophosphorus chemistry and organosilicon chemistry. Organosulfur compounds are Organic compounds that contain Sulfur (sulphur Organometallic chemistry is the study of Chemical compounds containing bonds between Carbon and a Metal. Organophosphorus compounds are Chemical compounds containing Carbon - Phosphorus bonds. Organosilicon compounds are organic compounds containing Carbon Silicon bonds.
Characteristics of organic substances
Organic compounds are generally covalently bonded. This allows for unique structures such as long carbon chains and rings. The reason carbon is excellent at forming unique structures and that there are so many carbon compounds is that carbon atoms form very stable covalent bonds with one another (catenation). Catenation is the ability of a Chemical element usually found in carbon forming Covalent bonds with other Carbon atoms resulting in the formation of long In contrast to inorganic materials, organic compounds typically melt, boil, sublimate, or decompose below 300 °C. Neutral organic compounds tend to be less soluble in water compared to many inorganic salts, with the exception of certain compounds such as ionic organic compounds and low molecular weight alcohols and carboxylic acids where hydrogen bonding occurs. Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A salt, in Chemistry, is defined as the product formed from the neutralisation reaction of Acids and bases. The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Carboxylic acids are Organic acids characterized by the presence of a Carboxyl group, which has the formula -C(=OOH usually written -COOH or -CO2H A hydrogen bond results from a Dipole-dipole force between an Electronegative atom and a Hydrogen atom bonded to Nitrogen, Oxygen
Organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic solvents which are either pure substances like ether or ethyl alcohol, or mixtures, such as the paraffinic solvents such as the various petroleum ethers and white spirits, or the range of pure or mixed aromatic solvents obtained from petroleum or tar fractions by physical separation or by chemical conversion. A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a Petroleum ether, also known as benzine, VM&P Naphta, Petroleum Naphta, Naptha ASTM, Petroleum Spirits, benzine, X4 White spirit, also known as Stoddard solvent, is a Paraffin -derived clear transparent liquid which is a common organic Solvent used in painting and A fraction in Chemistry is a quantity collected from a sample or batch of a substance in a fractionating Separation process. Solubility in the different solvents depends upon the solvent type and on the functional groups if present. In Organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of Atoms within Molecules that are responsible for the characteristic Chemical reactions Solutions are studied by the science of physical chemistry. Physical chemistry, is the application of Physics to macroscopic microscopic atomic subatomic and particulate phenomena in chemical systems It is mostly defined as a large Like inorganic salts, organic compounds may also form crystals. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating A unique property of carbon in organic compounds is that its valency does not always have to be taken up by atoms of other elements, and when it is not, a condition termed unsaturation results. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. In such cases we talk about carbon carbon double bonds or triple bonds. Alkynes are Hydrocarbons that have at least one Triple bond between two Carbon atoms with the formula CnH2n-2. Double bonds alternating with single in a chain are called conjugated double bonds. A chemically conjugated system is a system of atoms Covalently bonded with alternating single and multiple (e An aromatic structure is a special case in which the conjugated chain is a closed ring.
Molecular structure elucidation
Organic compounds consist of carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms, and functional groups. Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. In Organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of Atoms within Molecules that are responsible for the characteristic Chemical reactions The valence of carbon is 4, and hydrogen is 1, functional groups are generally 1. In Chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valency number, is a measure of the number of Chemical bonds formed by the Atoms From the number of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms in a molecule the degree of unsaturation can be obtained. The degree of unsaturation (also known as the index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD or rings plus double bonds) formula is used in Organic chemistry to help Many, but not all structures can be envisioned by the simple valence rule that there will be one bond for each valence number. The knowledge of the chemical formula for an organic compound is not sufficient information because many isomers can exist. A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes This article is about the chemical concept For "isomerism" of atomic nuclei see Nuclear isomer. Organic compounds often exist as mixtures. In Chemistry, a mixture is a substance made by combining two or more different materials without a chemical reaction occurring (the objects do not bond together Because many organic compounds have relatively low boiling points and/or dissolve easily in organic solvents there exist many methods for separating mixtures into pure constituents that are specific to organic chemistry such as distillation, crystallization and chromatography techniques. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution Chromatography (from Greek χρώμα chroma, color and γραφειν"graphein" to write is the collective term for a family of Laboratory There exist several methods for deducing the structure an organic compound. In general usage are (in alphabetical order):
- Crystallography: This is the most precise method for determining molecular geometry; however, it is very difficult to grow crystals of sufficient size and high quality to get a clear picture, so it remains a secondary form of analysis. Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The Molecular geometry or molecular structure is the three- Dimensional arrangement of the Atoms that constitute a Molecule. Crystallography has seen especially extensive use in biochemistry (for protein structure determination) and in the characterization of organometallic catalysts, which often possess significant molecular symmetry. Molecular symmetry in Chemistry describes the Symmetry present in Molecules and the classification of molecules according to their symmetry
- Elemental analysis: A destructive method used to determine the elemental composition of a molecule. Elemental analysis is a process where a sample of some material (e See also mass spectrometry, below.
- Infrared spectroscopy: Chiefly used to determine the presence (or absence) of certain functional groups. Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy is the subset of Spectroscopy that deals with the Infrared region of the Electromagnetic spectrum. In Organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of Atoms within Molecules that are responsible for the characteristic Chemical reactions
- Mass spectrometry: Used to determine the molecular weight of a compound and from mass spectrum analysis its structure. Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies the chemical composition of a compound or sample based on the Mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one Mass spectrum analysis is an integral part of Spectroscopy and Mass spectroscopy dealing with the interpretation of mass spectra. High resolution mass spectrometry can often identify the precise formula of a compound through knowledge of isotopic masses and abundances; it is thus sometimes used in lieu of elemental analysis.
- Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy identifies different nuclei based on their chemical environment. This is the most important and commonly used spectroscopic technique for organic chemists, often permitting complete assignment of atom connectivity and even stereochemistry given the proper set of spectroscopy experiments (e. g. correlation spectroscopy). Correlation spectroscopy is one of several types of two-dimensional Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR spectroscopy
- Optical rotation: Distinguishes between two enantiomers of a chiral compound based on the sign of rotation of plane polarized light. Optical rotation or optical activity is the rotation of linearly polarized Light as it travels through certain materials In Chemistry, an enantiomer ( from the Greek ἐνάντιος opposite and μέρος part or portion is one of two Stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable If the specific rotation of an enantiomer is known, the magnitude of rotation also gives the ratio of enantiomers in a mixed sample, though HPLC with a chiral column also can supply this information. The specific rotation of a Chemical compound is defined as the observed angle of Optical rotation α when plane-polarized light is passed through a sample with a High-performance liquid chromatography (or High pressure liquid chromatography, HPLC) is a form of Column chromatography used frequently in Biochemistry
- UV/VIS spectroscopy: Used to determine degree of conjugation in the system. Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry ( UV/ VIS) involves the Spectroscopy of Photons in the UV-visible While still sometimes used to characterize molecules, UV/VIS is more commonly used to quantitate how much of a known compound is present in a (typically liquid) sample.
Additional methods are provided by analytical chemistry. Analytical chemistry is the study of the Chemical composition of natural and artificial Materials.
Organic reactions
Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. Organic reactions are Chemical reactions involving Organic compounds The basic Organic chemistry reaction types are Addition reactions Elimination A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. While pure hydrocarbons undergo certain limited classes of reactions, many more reactions which organic compounds undergo are largely determined by functional groups. In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon. In Organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of Atoms within Molecules that are responsible for the characteristic Chemical reactions The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as the electron affinity of key atoms, bond strengths and steric hindrance. The electron affinity, E ea of an Atom or Molecule is the energy required to detach an electron from a singly charged negative In Chemistry, bond strength is measured between two Atoms joined in a Chemical bond. See also Intramolecular forces ' Steric effects arise from the fact that each Atom within a Molecule occupies a certain These issues can determine the relative stability of short-lived reactive intermediates, which usually directly determine the path of the reaction. A reaction intermediate or an intermediate is a Molecular entity that is formed from the reactants (or preceding intermediates and reacts further to give the directly An example of a common reaction is a substitution reaction written as:
- Nu− + C-X → C-Nu + X−
where X is some functional group and Nu is a nucleophile. In a substitution reaction, a Functional group in a particular Chemical compound is replaced by another group In Organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of Atoms within Molecules that are responsible for the characteristic Chemical reactions In Chemistry, a nucleophile (literally nucleus lover as in nucleus and phile) is a Reagent that forms a Chemical bond to
There are many important aspects of a specific reaction. Whether it will occur spontaneously or not is determined by the Gibbs free energy change of the reaction. In Thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy ( IUPAC recommended name Gibbs energy or Gibbs function) is a Thermodynamic potential which The heat that is either produced or needed by the reaction is found from the total enthalpy change. In Thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy (denoted as H, h, or rarely as χ) is a quotient or description of Other concerns include whether side reactions occur from the same reaction conditions. In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products Any side reactions which occur typically produce undesired compounds which may be anywhere from very easy or very difficult to separate from the desired compound.
Synthetic organic chemistry
Synthetic organic chemistry is an applied science as it borders engineering, the "design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes". For the song by 311, see Grassroots. Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural scientific Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and Organic synthesis of a novel compound is a problem solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the functional groups in the molecule. For example, a carbonyl compound can be used as a nucleophile by converting it into an enolate, or as an electrophile; the combination of the two is called the aldol reaction. In Organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a Functional group composed of a Carbon Atom double-bonded to an Oxygen In Chemistry, a nucleophile (literally nucleus lover as in nucleus and phile) is a Reagent that forms a Chemical bond to Enols (also known as alkenols) are Alkenes with a Hydroxyl group affixed to one of the carbon atoms composing the Double bond. In Chemistry, an electrophile (literally electron-lover) is a Reagent attracted to Electrons that participates in a chemical reaction by accepting The aldol reaction is an important Carbon-carbon bond formation reaction in Organic chemistry. Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel synthetic routes for complex molecules is called total synthesis. In principle a total synthesis is the complete Chemical synthesis of complex organic Molecules from simpler pieces usually without the aid of biological
There are several strategies to design a synthesis. The modern method of retrosynthesis, developed by E. Retrosynthetic analysis is a technique for solving problems in the planning of organic syntheses. J. Corey, starts with the target molecule and splices it to pieces according to known reactions. The pieces, or the proposed precursors, receive the same treatment, until available and ideally inexpensive starting materials are reached. Then, the retrosynthesis is written in the opposite direction to give the synthesis. A "synthetic tree" can be constructed, because each compound and also each precursor has multiple syntheses.
See also
References
- ^ Robert T. Some criteria for editing this page have been debated and are displayed This page aims to list well-known reactions and Reagents in Organic chemistry. Molecular modelling is a collective term that refers to theoretical methods and computational techniques to model or mimic the behaviour of Molecules The techniques Morrison, Robert N. Boyd, and Robert K. Boyd, Organic Chemistry, 6th edition (Benjamin Cummings, 1992, ISBN 0-13-643669-2) - this is "Morrison and Boyd", a classic textbook
- ^ John D. Roberts, Marjorie C. Caserio, Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry,(W. A. Benjamin,Inc. ,1964) - another classic textbook
- ^ Richard F. and Sally J. Daley, Organic Chemistry, Online organic chemistry textbook. http://www.ochem4free.info
- ^ "industrial polymers, chemistry of. " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006
External links
- Organic Chemistry on WikiChem
- MIT OpenCourseWare: Organic Chemistry I
- Organic Chemistry Lectures, Videos and Text
- Journal of Organic Chemistry (Table of Contents)
- Organic Letters (Table of Contents)
- Synlett
- Synthesis
- Organic Chemistry Portal - Recent Abstracts and (Name)Reactions
- Home of a full, online, peer-reviewed organic chemistry text.
- Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry
- Organic Chemistry Teaching kit
- Organic World Wide - A collection of Links
- Organic Families and Their Functional Groups
- Roger Frost's Organic Chemistry - multimedia teaching tools
- Organic chemistry help
- Chemical Freeware on http://www.acdlabs.com
- Organic Chemistry - Learning Resources
- Organic chemistry help-Best of the Web 2008
Dictionary
organic chemistry
-noun
- (chemistry) The chemistry of carbon-containing compounds, especially those that occur naturally in living organisms.
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