| Opium | |
 |
|
| Botanical | Opium |
|---|---|
| Source plant(s) | Papaver somniferum |
| Part(s) of plant | sap |
| Geographic origin | Middle East (?) |
| Active ingredients | Morphine, Codeine |
| Main producers | Afghanistan (primary), Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Mexico,Colombia, Hungary |
| Main consumers | worldwide (#1: U.S.) |
| Legal status | DEA schedule II or V |
| $300 per gram | |
| Retail price | $16,000 per kilogram |
Opium is a narcotic formed from the latex (i. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the type of Poppy from which Opium and many refined opiates such as Morphine, Thebaine The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Codeine ( INN) or methylmorphine is an Opiate used for its Analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Controlled Substances Act ( CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control The term narcotic (ναρκωτικός is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that benumb or deaden causing loss LaTeX (ˈleɪtɛ e. , sap) released by lacerating (or "scoring") the immature seed pods of opium poppies (Papaver somniferum). The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the type of Poppy from which Opium and many refined opiates such as Morphine, Thebaine Papaver is a Genus of poppies, belonging to the Poppy family ( Papaveraceae) It contains up to 10% morphine, an opiate alkaloid, which is most frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the illegal drug trade. Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in For other uses see Opiate (disambiguation, or for the class of drugs see Opioid. This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global Black market consisting of the cultivation manufacture distribution and sale of illegal Drugs The resin also includes codeine and non-narcotic alkaloids, such as papaverine and noscapine. Codeine ( INN) or methylmorphine is an Opiate used for its Analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties Papaverine (pəˈpævəriːn is an Opium Alkaloid used primarily in the treatment of visceral Spasm, Vasospasm (especially those involving the Noscapine (also known as Narcotine or Anarcotine) is an Alkaloid Opioid Agonist from plants of the Papaveraceae family Meconium historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the poppy or different species of poppies. Modern opium production is the culmination of millennia of production, in which the source poppy, methods of extraction and processing, and methods of consumption have become increasingly potent.
Cultivation of opium poppies for food, anesthesia, and ritual purposes dates back to at least the Neolithic Age. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Sumerian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Minoan, Greek, Roman, Persian and Arab Empires each made widespread use of opium, which was the most potent form of pain relief then available, allowing ancient surgeons to perform prolonged surgical procedures. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Pain management (also called pain medicine is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of Pain. Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. The Ebers Papyrus of about 1550 BC is among the most important Medical papyri of Ancient Egypt. Pedanius Dioscorides (Πεδάνιος Διοσκορίδης ca Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, which could be injected at a precisely controlled dosage. Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in American morphine is still produced primarily from poppies grown and processed in India in the traditional manner and remains the standard of pain relief for casualties of war.
Recreational use of the drug began in China in the fifteenth century but was limited by its rarity and expense. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era Opium trade became more regular by the seventeenth century, when it was mixed with tobacco for smoking, and addiction was first recognized. Opium prohibition in China began in 1729 and was followed by nearly two centuries of exponentially increasing opium use. China had a positive balance sheet in trading with the British, which led to a decrease of the British silver stocks. Therefore, the British tried to encourage Chinese opium use to enhance their balance, and they delivered it from Indian provinces under British control. A massive confiscation of opium by the Chinese emperor, who tried to stop the opium deliveries, led to two Opium Wars in 1840 and 1858, in which Britain suppressed China and traded opium all over the country. The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing After 1860, opium use continued to increase with widespread domestic production in China, until more than a quarter of the male population was addicted by 1905. Recreational or addictive opium use in other nations remained rare into the late nineteenth century, recorded by an ambivalent literature that sometimes praised the drug.
Global regulation of opium began with the stigmatization of Chinese immigrants and opium dens, leading rapidly from town ordinances in the 1870s to the formation of the International Opium Commission in 1909. An opium den was an establishment where Opium was sold and smoked The International Opium Commission was a meeting convened in 1909 in Shanghai that represented one of the first steps toward international drug prohibition. During this period, the portrayal of opium in literature became squalid and violent, British opium trade was largely supplanted by domestic Chinese production, purified morphine and heroin became widely available for injection, and patent medicines containing opiates reached a peak of popularity. Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Patent medicine is the somewhat misleading term given to various medical Compounds sold under a variety of names and labels though they were for the most part actually Opium was prohibited in many countries during the early twentieth century, leading to the modern pattern of opium production as a precursor for illegal recreational drugs or tightly regulated legal prescription drugs. The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary Legislation or Religious law is a common means of attempting to control Drug use and the Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes Illicit opium production, now dominated by Afghanistan, has increased steadily in recent years to over 6600 tons yearly, nearly one-fifth the level of production in 1906. The economy of Afghanistan has improved significantly since 2002 due to the infusion of multi-billion US dollars in international assistance and investments as well as remittances Opium for illegal use is often converted into heroin, which multiplies its potency to approximately twice that of morphine, can be taken by intravenous injection, and is easier to smuggle. Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative In Pharmacology and Toxicology, a route Smuggling, also known as trafficking, is the clandestine transportation of goods or persons past a point where prohibited such as out of a building into a Prison
Contents |
History
Ancient use (4200 BC - 800 AD)
The use of the opium poppy dates from time immemorial. At least seventeen finds of Papaver somniferum from Neolithic settlements have been reported throughout Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, including the placement of large numbers of poppy seed capsules at a burial site (the Cueva de los Murciélagos, or "Bat cave", in Spain), which have been carbon dated to 4200 B. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos C. Numerous finds of Papaver somniferum or Papaver setigerum from Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. [2] The first known cultivation of opium poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 B. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding C. , by Sumerians who called the plant Hul Gil, the "joy plant". Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar [3][4] Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of opium. Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous [1] Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the Assyrians, who also collected poppy juice in the morning after scoring the pods with an iron scoop; they called the juice aratpa-pal, possibly the root of Papaver. The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group
Opium was used with poison hemlock to put people quickly and painlessly to death, but it was also used in medicine. Poison hemlock redirects here For other uses of "hemlock" see Hemlock. The Ebers Papyrus, ca. The Ebers Papyrus of about 1550 BC is among the most important Medical papyri of Ancient Egypt. 1500 B. C. , describes a way to "prevent the excessive crying of children" using grains of the poppy-plant strained to a pulp. Spongia somnifera, sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery. [3] The Egyptians cultivated opium thebaicum in famous poppy fields around 1300 B. C. Opium was traded from Egypt by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea, including Greece, Carthage, and Europe. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers By 1100 B. C. , opium was cultivated on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus, where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, and smoked. Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía [5] Opium was also mentioned after the Persian conquest of Assyria and Babylonia in the sixth century B. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia C. [1]
From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated that ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power. [3] In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache. [1] A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, ca. 1300 B. C. , was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus. [5][6] The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding poppies. In Greek mythology, Hypnos (Ὕπνος was the personification of sleep the Roman equivalent was known as Somnus. In Greek mythology, Nyx ( Nox in Roman translation was the primordial Goddess of the night In Greek mythology, Thanatos (in Ancient Greek, θάνατος &ndash " Death " was the Daemon personification Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion. Asclepius (pronounced /æsˈkliːpiːəs/, Greek, transliterated Asklēpiós; Latin Aesculapius) is the god of Medicine Demeter (dɨˈmiːtɚ Greek:, possibly "distribution-mother" from the noun of the Indo-European mother-earth * dheghom * mater Originally a Hittite and Phrygian Goddess, Cybele (Κυβέλη was a deification of the Earth Mother and was worshipped in Isis is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs and is celebrated in their mythology as the ideal mother and wife patron of nature and magic friend of slaves sinners [1]
Islamic Empire (600-1500 A. D. )
As the power of the Roman Empire declined, the lands to the south and east of the Mediterranean sea became incorporated into the Islamic Empire, which assembled the finest libraries and the most skilled physicians of the era. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Many Muslims believe that the hadith of al-Bukhari prohibits every intoxicating substance as haraam, but the use of intoxicants in medicine has been widely permitted. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Al-Bukhari (البخاري or just Bukhari is an Arabic Nesbat, meaning "from Bukhara " the old Transoxiana location of Haraam (حرام is an Arabic term meaning "forbidden" [7] Dioscorides' five-volume De Materia Medica, the precursor of pharmacopoeias, remained in use (with some improvements in Arabic versions)[8]) from the 1st to 16th centuries and described opium, meconium and the wide range of uses prevalent in the ancient world. Pedanius Dioscorides (Πεδάνιος Διοσκορίδης ca Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing Pharmacopoeia (literally the art of the drug compounder in its modern technical sense is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound [9] Somewhere between 400 and 1200 AD, Arab traders introduced opium to China. [4][10][1] The Persian physician Agha Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (845-930 A. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox D. ), who was born near Tehran, maintained a laboratory and school in Baghdad, and was a student and critic of Galen, made use of opium in anesthesia and recommended its use for the treatment of melancholy in Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib, a home medical manual directed toward ordinary citizens for self-treatment if a doctor was not available. Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or [11][12] The renowned ophthalmologic surgeon Abu al-Qasim Ammar (936-1013 AD) relied on opium and mandrake as surgical anaesthetics and wrote a treatise, al-Tasrif, that influenced medical thought well into the sixteenth century. Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia [13][14] The Persian physician Abū ‘Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina (Avicenna) described opium as the most powerful of the stupefacients, by comparison with mandrake and other highly effective herbs, in The Canon of Medicine. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages and remained authoritative into the seventeenth century. [15] Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu used opium in the fourteenth century Ottoman Empire to treat migraine headaches, sciatica, and other painful ailments. Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385-1468 ( Ottoman Turkish:شرف الدّین صابونجی اوغلی was a medieval Ottoman Surgeon and Physician Migraine is a neurological Syndrome characterized by altered bodily experiences painful headaches and nausea Sciatica is a set of symptoms including Pain that may be caused by general compression and/or irritation of one of five nerve roots that give rise to the Sciatic nerve [16]
Reintroduction to Western medicine
Opium became stigmatized in Europe during the Inquisition as a Middle Eastern influence and became a taboo subject in Europe from approximately 1300 to 1500 A. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The term Inquisition can refer to any one of several institutions charged with trying and convicting heretics within the Roman Catholic Church and D. Manuscripts of Pseudo-Apuleius's fifth-century work from the tenth and eleventh centuries refer to the use of wild poppy Papaver agreste or Papaver rhoeas (identified as Papaver silvaticum) instead of Papaver somniferum for inducing sleep and relieving pain. Pseudo-Apuleius refers to the author of a Herbarium or De herbarum virtutibus; it is a medical herbal of the 5th century A The Corn Poppy, Field Poppy, Flanders Poppy, or Red Poppy is the wild Poppy of agricultural cultivation&mdash Papaver rhoeas. The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the type of Poppy from which Opium and many refined opiates such as Morphine, Thebaine [17]
The use of Paracelsus' laudanum was introduced to Western medicine in 1527, when Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim returned from his wanderings in Arabia with a famous sword, within the pommel of which he kept "Stones of Immortality" compounded from opium thebaicum, citrus juice, and "quintessence of gold". Paracelsus (11 November or 17 December 1493 in Einsiedeln Switzerland – 24 September 1541 in Salzburg, Austria) was an alchemist, Laudanum (ˈlȯd-nəm or ˈlȯ-də-nəm also known as Opium Tincture or Tincture of Opium, is an Alcoholic herbal preparation [4][18][19] The name "Paracelsus" was a pseudonym signifying him the equal or better of Aulus Cornelius Celsus, whose text, which described the use of opium or a similar preparation, had recently been translated and reintroduced to medieval Europe. Aulus Cornelius Celsus (ca 25 BC—ca 50 was a Roman encyclopedist and Physician. [20] The Canon of Medicine, the standard medical textbook that Paracelsus burned in a public bonfire three weeks after being appointed professor at the University of Basel, also described the use of opium, though many Latin translations were of poor quality. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian The University of Basel (German Universität Basel) is located at Basel, Switzerland. [21] Laudanum was originally the sixteenth-century term for a medicine associated with a particular physician that was widely well-regarded, but became standardized as "tincture of opium", a solution of opium in ethyl alcohol, which Paracelsus has been credited with developing. In Medicine, a tincture is an Alcoholic Extract (eg of leaves or other plant material or Solution of a non- volatile substance During his lifetime, Paracelsus was viewed as an adventurer who challenged the theories and mercenary motives of contemporary medicine with dangerous chemical therapies, but his therapies marked a turning point in Western medicine. In the seventeenth century laudanum was recommended for pain, sleeplessness, and diarrhea by Thomas Sydenham,[22] the renowned "father of English medicine" or "English Hippocrates", to whom is attributed the quote, "Among the remedies which it has pleased Almighty God to give to man to relieve his sufferings, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium. Thomas Sydenham (or Syndenham ( September 10, 1624 &ndash December 29, 1689) was an English Physician. "[23] Use of opium as a cure-all was reflected in the formulation of mithridatium described in the 1728 Chambers Cyclopedia, which included true opium in the mixture. This article is about the remedy Mithridate is also a play by Jean Racine. Cyclopaedia or A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences ( folio, 2 vols Subsequently, laudanum became the basis of many popular patent medicines of the nineteenth century. Patent medicine is the somewhat misleading term given to various medical Compounds sold under a variety of names and labels though they were for the most part actually
The standard medical use of opium persisted well into the nineteenth century. U. S. president William Henry Harrison was treated with opium in 1841, and in the American Civil War, the Union Army used 2. This article is about the general and president For his great-great-grandson see William H Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South 8 million ounces of opium tincture and powder and about 500,000 opium pills. This article is about the unit of mass For the unit of force see Pound-force. [1] During this time of popularity, users called opium "God's Own Medicine". [24]
The most important reason for the increase in opiate consumption in the United States during the 19th century was the prescribing and dispensing of legal opiates by physicians and pharmacist to women with ”female problems” (mostly to relieve painful menstruation). Between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts lived in the United States in the late 19th century and between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women. [25]
Recreational use
The earliest clear description of the use of opium as a recreational drug came from Xu Boling, who wrote in 1483 that opium was "mainly used to aid masculinity, strengthen sperm and regain vigor", and that it "enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court ladies. An opium den was an establishment where Opium was sold and smoked Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes " He described an expedition sent by the Chenghua Emperor in 1483 to procure opium for a price "equal to that of gold" in Hainan, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan and Shaanxi where it is close to Xiyu. The Chenghua Emperor ( December 9, 1447 &ndash September 9, 1487) was Emperor of the Ming dynasty in China Hainan ( POJ: Hai-lam Pinyin:, Jyutping: hoi2 naam4 literal meaning "South of the Sea" is the smallest province of the People's This article is about the People's Republic of China province Zhejiang ( is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu. ( Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess The Western Regions or Xiyu ( was a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to 8th century that referred to the regions west of Jade A century later, Li Shizhen listed standard medical uses of opium in his renowned Compendium of Materia Medica (1578), but also wrote that "lay people use it for the art of sex", in particular the ability to "arrest seminal emission". Li Shizhen ( 1518–1593 Courtesy name Dongbi (东璧 was one of the greatest Physicians and Pharmacologists in Chinese history Bencao Gangmu ( also known as Compendium of Materia Medica, is a Chinese materia medica work written by Li Shizhen in Ming This association of opium with sex continued in China until the twentieth century. Opium smoking began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury into the early nineteenth century, but by 1861, Wang Tao wrote that opium was used even by rich peasants, and even a small village without a rice store would have a shop where opium was sold. [26]
Smoking of opium came on the heels of tobacco smoking and may have been encouraged by a brief ban on the smoking of tobacco by the Ming emperor, ending in 1644 with the Qing dynasty, which had encouraged smokers to mix in increasing amounts of opium. Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China [1] In 1705, Wang Shizhen wrote that "nowadays, from nobility and gentlemen down to slaves and women, all are addicted to tobacco". Wang Shizhen ( Chinese: 王士珍 1861-1930 was a Chinese general and politician of the Republic of China. Tobacco in that time was frequently mixed with other herbs (this continues with clove cigarettes to the modern day), and opium was one component in the mixture. Kretek ˈkriːtɛk (or clove are Cigarettes made with a complex blend of Tobacco, Cloves and a flavoring 'sauce' Tobacco mixed with opium was called madak (or madat) and became popular throughout China and its seafaring trade partners (such as Taiwan, Java and the Philippines) in the seventeenth century. Madak was a blend of Opium and Tobacco used as a recreational intoxicant smoking mixture in 17th and 18th century China. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP [26] In 1712, Engelbert Kaempfer described addiction to madak: "No commodity throughout the Indies is retailed with greater profit by the Batavians than opium, which [its] users cannot do without, nor can they come by it except it be brought by the ships of the Batavians from Bengal and Coromandel. Engelbert Kaempfer ( September 16, 1651 &ndash November 2, 1716) was a German naturalist traveller and Physician. The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Madak was a blend of Opium and Tobacco used as a recreational intoxicant smoking mixture in 17th and 18th century China. The Indies or East Indies (or East India) is a term often used to refer to the islands of SE Asia, especially the Malay Archipelago Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang The Coromandel Coast is the name given to the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula "[10]
Fueled in part by the 1729 ban on madak, which at first effectively exempted pure opium as a potentially medicinal product, the smoking of pure opium became more popular in the eighteenth century. Madak was a blend of Opium and Tobacco used as a recreational intoxicant smoking mixture in 17th and 18th century China. In 1736, the smoking of pure opium was described by Huang Shujing, involving a pipe made from bamboo rimmed with silver, stuffed with palm slices and hair, fed by a clay bowl in which a globule of molten opium was held over the flame of an oil lamp. Huáng Shújǐng (黃叔璥 was the first Imperial High Commissioner to Taiwan (1722 This elaborate procedure, requiring the maintenance of pots of opium at just the right temperature for a globule to be scooped up with a needle-like skewer for smoking, formed the basis of a craft of "paste-scooping" by which servant girls could become prostitutes as the opportunity arose. [26]
Beginning in eighteenth-century China, famine and political upheaval, as well as rumors of wealth to be had in nearby Southeast Asia, led to the Chinese Diaspora. Chinese emigrants to cities such as San Francisco, London, and New York brought with them the Chinese manner of opium smoking and the social traditions of the opium den. An opium den was an establishment where Opium was sold and smoked [27][28] The Indian Diaspora distributed opium-eaters in the same way, and both social groups survived as "lascars" (seamen) and "coolies" (manual laborers). A non-resident Indian (NRI is an Indian citizen who has migrated to another country a person of Indian origin who is born outside India or a person of Lascar, though rarely used now was once the name used to describe a Sailor from India or other countries East of the Cape of Good Hope, employed on Coolie (variously spelled Cooly Kuli Quli Koelie etcis A historical term for manual labourers from Asia particularly China and India, in the 19th French sailors provided another major group of opium smokers, having contracted the habit in French Indochina, where the drug was promoted by the colonial government as a monopoly and source of revenue. First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit [29][30] Among white Europeans, opium was more frequently consumed as laudanum or in patent medicines. Laudanum (ˈlȯd-nəm or ˈlȯ-də-nəm also known as Opium Tincture or Tincture of Opium, is an Alcoholic herbal preparation Patent medicine is the somewhat misleading term given to various medical Compounds sold under a variety of names and labels though they were for the most part actually Britain's All-India Opium Act of 1878 formalized social distinctions, limiting recreational opium sales to registered Indian opium-eaters and Chinese opium-smokers and prohibiting its sale to workers from Burma. [31] Likewise, American law sought to contain addiction to immigrants by prohibiting Chinese from smoking opium in the presence of a white man. [32]
Because of the low social status of immigrant workers, contemporary writers and media had little trouble portraying opium dens as seats of vice, white slavery, gambling, knife and revolver fights, a source for drugs causing deadly overdoses, with the potential to addict and corrupt the white population. White slavery is a term that was used to refer to Sexual slavery. By 1919, anti-Chinese riots attacked Limehouse, the Chinatown of London. Limehouse is a place in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is on the northern bank of the River Thames opposite Rotherhithe and between Ratcliff A Chinatown is a section of an urban area with a large number of Chinese outside the majority-Chinese countries of Greater China. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Chinese men were deported for playing puck-apu, a popular gambling game, and sentenced to hard labor for opium possession. Both the immigrant population and the social use of opium fell into decline. [33][34] Yet despite lurid literary accounts to the contrary, nineteenth-century London was not a hotbed of opium smoking. The total lack of photographic evidence of opium smoking in Britain, as opposed to the relative abundance of historical photos depicting opium smoking in North America and France, indicates that the infamous Limehouse opium smoking scene was little more than fantasy on the part of British writers of the day who were intent on scandalizing their readers while drumming up the threat of the "yellow peril". Limehouse is a place in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is on the northern bank of the River Thames opposite Rotherhithe and between Ratcliff [35][36]
Prohibition and conflict in China
Opium prohibition began in 1729, when Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty, disturbed by madak smoking at court and carrying out the government's role of upholding Confucian virtue, officially prohibited the import of opium, except for a small amount for medicinal purposes. The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary Legislation or Religious law is a common means of attempting to control Drug use and the The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing The Yongzheng Emperor (雍正帝 → yōngzhèngdì) (born Yinzhen (胤禛 → yìnzhēn) December 13, 1678 - October 8 Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China Madak was a blend of Opium and Tobacco used as a recreational intoxicant smoking mixture in 17th and 18th century China. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B The ban punished sellers and opium den keepers, but not users of the drug. An opium den was an establishment where Opium was sold and smoked [10] Opium prohibition in China continued until 1860 and was later resumed.
Under the Qing Dynasty, China opened itself to foreign trade under the Canton System through the port of Guangzhou (Canton), and traders from the British East India Company began visiting the port by the 1690s. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China The Canton System (1760-1842 served as a means for China to control trade with the west within its own country Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or Due to the growing British demand for Chinese tea and the Chinese disinterest in British commodities other than silver, the British became interested in opium as a high-value commodity for which China was not self-sufficient. Chinese tea consists of Tea leaves which have been processed using methods inherited from China. The British traders had been purchasing small amounts of opium from India for trade since Ralph Fitch first visited in the mid-sixteenth century. Ralph Fitch (died 1611) was a gentleman Merchant of London and one of the earliest English Travellers and Traders to [10] Trade in opium was standardized, with production of balls of raw opium, 1. 1 to 1. 6 kilograms, 30% water content, wrapped in poppy leaves and petals, and shipped in chests of 60-65 kilograms (one picul). Picul is the English word for a traditional Chinese measurement of weight called dàn (擔 in Mandarin Chinese or tam (擔 in Cantonese language [10] Chests of opium were sold in auctions in Calcutta with the understanding that the independent purchasers would then smuggle it into China (see Opium Wars). The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing
After the 1757 Battle of Plassey and 1764 Battle of Buxar, the British East India Company gained the power to act as diwan of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (See company rule in India). The Battle of Plassey (পলাশীর যুদ্ধ Pôlashir Juddho) was a decisive British East India Company victory over the Nawab of Bengal The Battle of Buxar was fought in October 1764 between the forces under the command The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Orissa (ଓଡ଼ିଶା is a state located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. For usage see British rule in India Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj, " raj," lit This allowed the company to pursue a monopoly on opium production and export in India, to encourage ryots to cultivate the cash crops of indigo and opium with cash advances, and to prohibit the "hoarding" of rice. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient Ryot or Ravat (from an Arabic word raiyat which originates from ra'a] meaning etymologically 'a herd at pasture' and 'subjects' in a collective sense properly a subject then a tenant Indigo is the Color on the Electromagnetic spectrum between about 420 and 450 nm in Wavelength, placing it between Blue and violet This strategy led to the increase of the land tax to 50% of the value of crops, the starvation of ten million people in the Bengal famine of 1770, and the doubling of East India Company profits by 1777. The Bengal famine of 1770 (Bengali ৭৬-এর মন্বন্তর Chhiattōrer monnōntór; lit The Famine of '76) was a catastrophic Famine between Beginning in 1773, the British government began enacting oversight of the company's operations, culminating in the establishment of British India in response to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, Bengal opium was highly prized, commanding twice the price of the domestic Chinese product, which was regarded as inferior in quality. [37]
Some competition came from the newly independent United States, which began to compete in Guangzhou (Canton) selling Turkish opium in the 1820s. Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city Portuguese traders also brought opium from the independent Malwa states of western India, although by 1820, the British were able to restrict this trade by charging "pass duty" on the opium when it was forced to pass through Bombay to reach an entrepot. An entrepôt (from the French " Warehouse " is a Trading post where merchandise can be imported and Exported without [10] Despite drastic penalties and continued prohibition of opium until 1860, opium importation rose steadily from 200 chests per year under Yongzheng to 1,000 under Qianlong, 4,000 under Jiaqing, and 30,000 under Daoguang. The Yongzheng Emperor (雍正帝 → yōngzhèngdì) (born Yinzhen (胤禛 → yìnzhēn) December 13, 1678 - October 8 Emperor Qianlong (Chinese 乾隆 Qiánlóng, Wade-Giles' Ch'ien-Lung', Mongolian Tengeriig Tetgesen Khaan, born Hongli (弘历 September The Jiaqing Emperor ( November 13, 1760 – September 2, 1820) was the sixth emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty The Daoguang Emperor ( September 16, 1782 – February 25, 1850) was the seventh emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty [38] The illegal sale of opium became one of the world's most valuable single commodity trades and has been called "the most long continued and systematic international crime of modern times". [39]
In response to the ever-growing number of Chinese people becoming addicted to opium, Daoguang of the Qing Dynasty took strong action to halt the import of opium, including the seizure of cargo. The Daoguang Emperor ( September 16, 1782 – February 25, 1850) was the seventh emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China In 1838, the Chinese Commissioner Lin Zexu destroyed 20,000 chests of opium in Guangzhou (Canton). Lin Zexu ( Styled: Yuanfu (元抚 ( August 30, 1785 &ndash November 22, 1850) was a Chinese scholar and official during Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city [10] Given that a chest of opium was worth nearly $1,000 in 1800, this was a substantial economic loss. The British, not willing to replace the cheap opium with costly silver, began the First Opium War in 1840, winning Hong Kong and trade concessions in the first of a series of Unequal Treaties. The First Opium War or the First Anglo-Chinese War was fought between the British East India Company and the Qing Dynasty in China from 1839 Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders Unequal Treaties is a term used in reference to the type of Treaties signed by several East Asian states including Qing Dynasty China, late
Following China's defeat in the Second Opium War in 1858, China was forced to legalize opium and began massive domestic production. The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war of the United Kingdom Importation of opium peaked in 1879 at 6,700 tons, and by 1906, China was producing 85% of the world's opium, some 35,000 tons, and 27% of its adult male population was addicted—13. 5 million addicts consuming 39,000 tons of opium yearly. [40] From 1880 to the beginning of the Communist era, the British attempted to discourage the use of opium in China, but this effectively promoted the use of morphine, heroin, and cocaine, further exacerbating the problem of addiction. [41]
Scientific evidence of the pernicious nature of opium use was largely undocumented in the 1890s when Protestant missionaries in China decided to strengthen their opposition to the trade by compiling data which would demonstrate the harm the drug did. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. See also Evangelism, Christianization A Christian mission has been widely defined since the Lausanne Congress of 1974 as that which Faced with the problem that many Chinese associated Christianity with opium, partly due to the arrival of early Protestant missionaries on opium clippers, at the 1890 Shanghai Missionary Conference, they agreed to establish the Permanent Committee for the Promotion of Anti-Opium Societies in an attempt to overcome this problem and to arouse public opinion against the opium trade. The members of the committee were John G. Kerr, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Canton; B. John Glasgow Kerr (1824 &ndash 1901 was a Presbyterian medical Missionary to China with the American Presbyterian Mission. C. Atterbury, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Peking; Archdeacon Arthur E. Moule, Church Missionary Society in Shanghai; Henry Whitney, MD, American Board of Commissioners for foreign Missions in Foochow; the Rev. Arthur Evans Moule (1836-1918 was an English missionary to China. Samuel Clarke, China Inland Mission in Kweiyang; the Rev. Arthur Shorrock, English Baptist Mission in Taiyuan; and the Rev. Missionary work in China Arthur joined the Baptist Missionary Society and went to China, firstly to Shantung. Griffith John, London Mission Society in Hankow. Missionary career John was born at Swansea, Wales. He studied for the Congregational ministry at Brecon College, Wales and Bedford [42] These missionaries were generally outraged over the British government's Royal Commission on Opium visiting India but not China. Accordingly, the missionaries first organized the Anti-Opium League in China among their colleagues in every mission station in China. American missionary Hampden Coit DuBose acted as first president. Hampden Coit DuBose was a Presbyterian missionary in China with the American Presbyterian Mission (South and founder of the Anti-Opium This organization, which had elected national officers and held an annual national meeting, was instrumental in gathering data from every Western-trained medical doctor in China, which was then published as William Hector Park compiled Opinions of Over 100 Physicians on the Use of Opium in China (Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1899). The vast majority of these medical doctors were missionaries; the survey also included doctors who were in private practices, particularly in Shanghai and Hong Kong, as well as Chinese who had been trained in medical schools in Western countries. In England, the home director of the China Inland Mission, Benjamin Broomhall, was an active opponent of the Opium trade, writing two books to promote the banning of opium smoking: The Truth about Opium Smoking and The Chinese Opium Smoker. OMF International (formerly Overseas Missionary Fellowship and before that the China Inland Mission before 1964 is an interdenominational Further reading Historical Bibliography of the China Inland Mission In 1888, Broomhall formed and became secretary of the Christian Union for the Severance of the British Empire with the Opium Traffic and editor of its periodical, National Righteousness. He lobbied the British Parliament to stop the opium trade. The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories He and James Laidlaw Maxwell appealed to the London Missionary Conference of 1888 and the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 to condemn the continuation of the trade. James Laidlaw Maxwell Senior ( Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Má Ngá-kok;; born Scotland, 18 March 1836; died March 1921 was the first Presbyterian When Broomhall was dying, his son Marshall read to him from The Times the welcome news that an agreement had been signed ensuring the end of the opium trade within two years. The Times is a daily national Newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785 when it was known as The Daily Universal Register.
Official Chinese resistance to opium was renewed on September 20, 1906, with an anti-opium initiative intended to eliminate the drug problem within ten years. Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 1906 ( MCMVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting The program relied on the turning of public sentiment against opium, with mass meetings at which opium paraphernalia was publicly burned, as well as coercive legal action and the granting of police powers to organizations such as the Fujian Anti-Opium Society. Drug paraphernalia is defined by the American Federal Drug Enforcement Administration as any equipment product or material that is modified for making using or concealing Smokers were required to register for licenses for gradually reducing rations of the drug. Addicts sometimes turned to missionaries for treatment for their addiction, though many associated these foreigners with the drug trade. The program was counted as a substantial success, with a cessation of direct British opium exports to China (but not Hong Kong[43]) and most provinces declared free of opium production. Nonetheless, the success of the program was only temporary, with opium use rapidly increasing during the disorder following the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916. Yuan Shikai ( Courtesy Weiting 慰亭 Pseudonym: Rong'an 容庵 ( September 16, 1859 &ndash June 6, [44]
Beginning in 1915, Chinese nationalist groups came to describe the period of military losses and Unequal Treaties as the "Century of National Humiliation", later defined to end with the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Unequal Treaties is a term used in reference to the type of Treaties signed by several East Asian states including Qing Dynasty China, late [45] The Mao Zedong government is generally credited with eradicating both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform. Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops. Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region, at times with the involvement of Western intelligence agencies. The Golden Triangle is one of Asia 's two main illicit Opium -producing areas [37] The remnant opium trade primarily served Southeast Asia, but spread to American soldiers during the Vietnam War, with 20% of soldiers regarding themselves as addicted during the peak of the epidemic in 1971. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia In 2003, China was estimated to have four million regular drug users and one million registered drug addicts. [46]
Prohibition outside China
There were no legal restrictions on the importation or use of opium in the United States until the San Francisco, California, Opium Den Ordinance, which banned dens for public smoking of opium in 1875, a measure fueled by anti-Chinese sentiment and the perception that whites were starting to frequent the dens. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. This was followed by an 1891 California law requiring that narcotics carry warning labels and that their sales be recorded in a registry, amendments to the California Pharmacy and Poison Act in 1907 making it a crime to sell opiates without a prescription, and bans on possession of opium or opium pipes in 1909. [47]
At the U. S. federal level, the legal actions taken reflected constitutional restrictions under the Enumerated powers doctrine prior to reinterpretation of the Commerce clause, which did not allow the federal government to enact arbitrary prohibitions but did permit arbitrary taxation. The enumerated powers are a list of specific responsibilities found in Article 1 Section 8 of the United States Constitution, which enumerate the authority granted Article 1 Section 8 Clause 3 of the United States Constitution, known as the Commerce Clause, states that Congress has the power to regulate commerce with foreign [48] Beginning in 1883, opium importation was taxed at $6 to $300 per pound, until the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 prohibited the importation of opium altogether. In a similar manner the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914, passed in fulfillment of the International Opium Convention of 1912, nominally placed a tax on the distribution of opiates, but served as a de facto prohibition of the drugs. The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (Ch 1) was a United States federal law that regulated and taxed the production importation and distribution of Opiates. The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912, was the first international drug control treaty Today, opium is regulated by the Drug Enforcement Administration under the Controlled Substances Act. The Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA) is a United States Department of Justice Law enforcement agency tasked with combating drug smuggling and The Controlled Substances Act ( CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control
Following passage of a regional law in 1895, Australia's Aboriginal Protection and restriction of the sale of opium act 1897 addressed opium addiction among Aborigines, though it soon became a general vehicle for depriving them of basic rights by administrative regulation. The Aboriginal Protection and Restrictions of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 was an Act of the Parliament of Queensland. Indigenous Australians are descendants of the first known human inhabitants of the Australian continent and its nearby islands. Opium sale was prohibited to the general population in 1905, and smoking and possession was prohibited in 1908. [49]
Hardening of Canadian attitudes toward Chinese opium users and fear of a spread of the drug into the white population led to the effective criminalization of opium for non-medical use in Canada between 1908 and the mid-1920s. [50]
In 1909, the International Opium Commission was founded, and by 1914, thirty-four nations had agreed that the production and importation of opium should be diminished. The International Opium Commission was a meeting convened in 1909 in Shanghai that represented one of the first steps toward international drug prohibition. In 1924, sixty-two nations participated in a meeting of the Commission. Subsequently, this role passed to the League of Nations, and all signatory nations agreed to prohibit the import, sale, distribution, export, and use of all narcotic drugs, except for medical and scientific purposes. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 This role was later taken up by the International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations under Article 23 of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and subsequently under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB is the independent and quasi-judicial control organ for the implementation of the United Nations drug conventions The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is an international Treaty to prohibit production and supply of specific (nominally Narcotic) Drugs and of drugs The Convention on Psychotropic Substances is a United Nations Treaty designed to control Psychoactive drugs such as Amphetamines Barbiturates Opium-producing nations are required to designate a government agency to take physical possession of licit opium crops as soon as possible after harvest and conduct all wholesaling and exporting through that agency. A government agency is a permanent or semi-permanent organization in the Machinery of government that is responsible for the oversight and administration of specific functions [1]
Obsolescence
Opium has gradually been superseded by a variety of purified, semi-synthetic, and synthetic opioids with progressively stronger effect, and by other general anesthesia. An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body In modern medical practice general anaesthesia ( AmE: anesthesia) is a state of total unconsciousness resulting from General anaesthetic drugs This process began in 1817, when Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner reported the isolation of pure morphine from opium after at least thirteen years of research and a nearly disastrous trial on himself and three boys. Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner (born 19 June 1783 in Neuhaus (near Paderborn) died 20 February 1841 in Hamelin) was a German pharmacist who discovered Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in [51] The great advantage of purified morphine was that a patient could be treated with a known dose—whereas with raw plant material, as Gabriel Fallopius once lamented, "if soporifics are weak they do not help; if they are strong they are exceedingly dangerous. Gabriele Falloppio ( 1523 - October 9, 1562) often known by his Latin name Fallopius, was one of the most important anatomists " Morphine was the first pharmaceutical isolated from a natural product, and this success encouraged the isolation of other alkaloids: by 1820, isolations of narcotine, strychnine, veratrine, colchicine, caffeine, and quinine were reported. Noscapine (also known as Narcotine or Anarcotine) is an Alkaloid Opioid Agonist from plants of the Papaveraceae family Strychnine (ˈstrɪkniːn (British US /-naɪn/ or /-nɪn/ (US Colchicine is a highly poisonous Natural product and Secondary metabolite, originally extracted from plants of the genus Colchicum ( Autumn Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Quinine (ˈkwaɪnaɪn kwɪˈniːn ˈkwiːniːn is a natural white Crystalline Alkaloid having Antipyretic (fever-reducing antimalarial, Morphine sales began in 1827, by Heinrich Emanuel Merck of Darmstadt, and helped him expand his family pharmacy into the massive Merck KGaA pharmaceutical company. Heinrich Emanuel Merck ( 15 September, 1794 &ndash 14 February, 1855) was an Apothecary whose descendants are the founders of Merck KGaA (EMD Chemicals in the United States and Canada is a German -based chemical and Pharmaceutical company.
Codeine was isolated in 1832 by Robiquet. Codeine ( INN) or methylmorphine is an Opiate used for its Analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties Pierre Jean Robiquet ( January 13, 1780 &ndash April 1840) was a French Chemist.
The use of diethyl ether and chloroform for general anesthesia began in 1846-1847, and rapidly displaced the use of opiates and tropane alkaloids from Solanaceae due to their relative safety. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl In modern medical practice general anaesthesia ( AmE: anesthesia) is a state of total unconsciousness resulting from General anaesthetic drugs Tropane is a Nitrogenous Bicyclic Organic compound. It is mainly known for a group of Alkaloids derived from it (called Tropane alkaloids The Solanaceae is a family of Flowering plants that contains a number of important agricultural plants as well as many toxic plants [52]
Heroin, the first semi-synthetic opiate, was first synthesized in 1874, but was not pursued until its rediscovery in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann at the Bayer pharmaceutical company in Elberfeld, Germany. Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Felix Hoffmann ( January 21, 1868 &ndash February 8, 1946) was a German Chemist, who first synthesized medically useful For other uses see Bayer (disambiguation or Beyer or Buyer. Bayer AG (German ˈbaɪə () is a German See also Elberfeld Indiana. For the baseball player with this name see Kid Elberfeld. From 1898 to 1910 heroin was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. By 1902, sales made up 5% of the company's profits, and "heroinism" had attracted media attention. [53] Oxycodone, a thebaine derivative similar to codeine, was introduced by Bayer in 1916 and promoted as a less-addictive analgesic. Oxycodone is an Opioid Analgesic Medication synthesized from Thebaine. Parameters work only in their own section When a parameter is not needed please leave it empty when a parameter is wrong just clear Codeine ( INN) or methylmorphine is an Opiate used for its Analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties Preparations of the drug such as Percocet and Oxycontin remain popular to this day. Oxycodone is an Opioid Analgesic Medication synthesized from Thebaine. Oxycodone is an Opioid Analgesic Medication synthesized from Thebaine.
A range of synthetic opioids such as methadone (1937), pethidine (1939), fentanyl (late 1950s), and derivatives thereof have been introduced, and each is preferred for certain specialized applications. An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body Methadone ( Dolophine Amidone Methadose Physeptone Heptadon and many others is a synthetic Opioid, used medically as an Analgesic, Antitussive Pethidine ( INN) or meperidine ( USAN) (commonly referred to as Demerol but also referred to as isonipecaine lidol pethanol piridosal Algil Alodan Fentanyl is one of the most powerful Opioid Analgesics with a potency approximately 81 times that of Morphine. Nonetheless, morphine remains the drug of choice for American combat medics, who carry packs of syrettes containing 16 milligrams each for use on severely wounded soldiers. A combat medic is a trained Soldier or sailor who is responsible for providing First aid and frontline trauma care on the battlefield The Syrette is a device for injecting liquid through a needle [54] No drug has yet been found that can match the painkilling effect of opium without also duplicating much of its addictive potential.
Modern production and usage
Papaver somniferum
In South American countries, opium poppies (Papaver somniferum) are technically illegal, but nonetheless appear in some nurseries as ornamentals. The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the type of Poppy from which Opium and many refined opiates such as Morphine, Thebaine They are popular and attractive garden plants, whose flowers vary greatly in color, size and form. A modest amount of domestic cultivation in private gardens is not usually subject to legal controls. In part, this tolerance reflects variation in addictive potency: a cultivar for opium production, Papaver somniferum L. elite, contains 92% morphine, codeine, and thebaine in its latex alkaloids, whereas the condiment cultivar "Marianne" has only one-fifth this total, with the remaining alkaloids made up mostly of narcotoline and noscapine. Narcotoline is an Opiate Alkaloid chemically related to Noscapine. Noscapine (also known as Narcotine or Anarcotine) is an Alkaloid Opioid Agonist from plants of the Papaveraceae family [55]
Seed capsules can be dried and used for decorations, but they also contain morphine, codeine, and other alkaloids. These pods can be boiled in water to produce a bitter tea that induces a long-lasting intoxication (See Poppy tea). Poppy tea is a Narcotic Analgesic Tea which is brewed from the dried parts of the Papaver somniferum Plant. If allowed to mature, poppy pods can be crushed into "poppy straw" and used to produce lower quantities of morphinans. Morphinan is the base chemical structure of a subgroup of Opioids It is also an alternative name for the drug Dromoran, which is a racaemic parent drug of Levo-Dromoran® In poppies subjected to mutagenesis and selection on a mass scale, researchers have been able to use poppy straw to obtain large quantities of oripavine, a precursor to opioids and antagonists such as naltrexone. Oripavine is an Opiate and the major metabolite of Thebaine. It is the prototypical molecule of a series of semi-synthetic An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body Naltrexone is an Opioid receptor antagonist used primarily in the management of Alcohol dependence and Opioid dependence. [56]
Poppyseeds are a common and flavorsome topping for breads and cakes. A poppy is any of a number of showy Flowers typically withone per stem, belonging to the poppy family. One gram of poppy seeds contains up to 33 micrograms of morphine and 14 micrograms of codeine, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration formerly mandated that all drug screening laboratories use a standard cutoff of 300 nanograms per milliliter in urine samples. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA is the US Federal agency charged with improving the quality and availability of prevention treatment and rehabilitative A single poppy seed roll (0. 76 grams of seeds) usually did not produce a positive drug test, but a positive result was observed from eating two rolls. For the episode of the American television series The Office, see " Drug Testing " A slice of poppy seed cake containing nearly five grams of seeds per slice produced positive results for 24 hours. Such results are viewed as false positive indications of drug abuse and were the basis of a legal defense. In Statistics, the terms Type I error (also α error, or false positive) and type II error ( β error, or a false negative [57][58] On November 30, 1998, the standard cutoff was increased to 2000 nanograms (two micrograms) per milliliter. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) [59] During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers were processed by users with household chemicals to make kompot ("Polish heroin"), and poppy seeds were used to produce koknar, an opiate. Polish heroin, also known as " Compote " is a crude addictive Opiate Drug used mainly in Eastern Europe prior to the dissolution of [60]
Harvesting and processing
When grown for opium production, the skin of the ripening pods of these poppies is scored by a sharp blade at a time carefully chosen so that neither rain, wind, nor dew can spoil the exudation of white, milky latex, usually in the afternoon. LaTeX (ˈleɪtɛ Incisions are made while the pods are still raw, with no more than a slight yellow tint, and must be shallow to avoid penetrating hollow inner chambers or loculi while cutting into the lactiferous vessels. In India, the special tool used to make the incisions is called a nushtar and carries three or four blades three millimeters apart, which are scored upward along the pod. Incisions are made three or four times at intervals of two to three days, and each time the "poppy tears", which dry to a sticky brown resin, are collected the following morning. One acre harvested in this way can produce three to five kilograms of raw opium. The acre is a unit of Area in a number of different systems including the imperial and U [61] In the Soviet Union, pods were typically scored horizontally, and opium was collected three times, or else one or two collections were followed by isolation of opiates from the ripe capsules. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Oil poppies, an alternative strain of P. somniferum, were also used for production of opiates from their capsules and stems. [62]
Raw opium may be sold to a merchant or broker on the black market, but it usually does not travel far from the field before it is refined into morphine base, because pungent, jelly-like raw opium is bulkier and harder to smuggle. Crude laboratories in the field are capable of refining opium into morphine base by a simple acid-base extraction. Acid-base extraction is a procedure using sequential Liquid-liquid extractions to purify Acids and bases from mixtures based on their chemical properties A sticky, brown paste, morphine base is pressed into bricks and sun-dried, and can either be smoked, prepared into other forms or processed into heroin. Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative [4]
Other methods of preparation (besides smoking), include processing into regular opium tincture (tinctura opii), laudanum, paregoric (tinctura opii camphorata), herbal wine (eg vinum opii), opium powder (pulvis opii), opium sirup (sirupus opii) and opium extract (extractum opii)[63]. In Medicine, a tincture is an Alcoholic Extract (eg of leaves or other plant material or Solution of a non- volatile substance Laudanum (ˈlȯd-nəm or ˈlȯ-də-nəm also known as Opium Tincture or Tincture of Opium, is an Alcoholic herbal preparation Paregoric, or Camphorated Tincture of Opium, also known as tinctura opii camphorata, is a Medication known for its Antidiarrheal In Cooking, a syrup (from Arabic' ar شراب sharab, beverage via Latin siropus) is a thick Viscous Liquid Vinum opii is made by combining sugar, white wine, cinnamon, and cloves). Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Cinnamon ( Cinnamomum verum, synonym C zeylanicum) is a small Evergreen Tree 10–15 metres (32 This article is about the Spice; for other meanings see Clove (disambiguation. Opium sirup is made by combining 997,5 part sugar sirup with 2,5 parts opium extract. Opium extract (extractum opii) finally can be made by macerating raw opium with water. To make opium extract, 20 parts water are combined with 1 part raw opium which has been boiled for 5 minutes (the latter to easy mixing). [64]
Heroin is widely preferred because of increased potency. Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative One study in postaddicts found heroin to be approximately 2. 2 times more potent than morphine by weight with a similar duration; at these relative quantities, they could distinguish the drugs subjectively but had no preference. Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in [65] Heroin was also found to be twice as potent as morphine in surgical anesthesia. [66] Morphine is converted into heroin by a simple chemical reaction with acetic anhydride, followed by a varying degree of purification. Acetic anhydride is the Chemical compound with the formula (CH3CO2O [67][68] Especially in Mexican production, opium may be converted directly to "black tar heroin" in a simplified procedure. Black Tar Heroin is a variety of Heroin produced primarily in Mexico, but similar in appearance and texture to so called Home Bake Heroin from New Zealand This form predominates in the U. S. west of the Mississippi. Relative to other preparations of heroin, it has been associated with a dramatically decreased rate of HIV transmission among intravenous drug users (4% in Los Angeles vs. Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV) is a Lentivirus (a member of the Retrovirus family that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome 40% in New York) due to technical requirements of injection, although it is also associated with greater risk of venous sclerosis and necrotizing fasciitis. Necrotizing fasciitis (NF or fasciitis necroticans, commonly known as "flesh-eating disease" or "flesh-eating bacteria" is a rare Infection [69]
Illegal production
- See also: Opium production in Afghanistan and Illegal drug trade
Opium production has fallen greatly since 1906, when 41,000 tons were produced, but because 39,000 tons of that year's opium were consumed in China, overall usage in the rest of the world was much lower. Afghanistan is as of March 2008 the greatest illicit (in Western World standards Opium producer in the world before Burma ( Myanmar) part of the so-called " The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global Black market consisting of the cultivation manufacture distribution and sale of illegal Drugs [70] In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses. [10] Recently, opium production has increased considerably, surpassing 5,000 tons in 2002. In 2002, the price for one kilogram of opium was $300 for the farmer, $800 for purchasers in Afghanistan, and $16,000 on the streets of Europe before conversion into heroin. [71]
Following documented trends of increasing availability mirroring increased American military and geo-political regional involvement, Afghanistan is currently the primary producer of the drug. After regularly producing 70% of the world's opium, Afghanistan decreased production to 74 tons per year under a ban by the Taliban in 2000, although the ban may have been intended primarily to boost prices after the country accumulated a stockpile with over two years' supply. The Taliban ( طالبان, also anglicised as Taleban; translation "students" is a Sunni Islamist, predominately [72] After the 2001 war in Afghanistan, production increased again. The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U According to DEA statistics, Afghanistan's production of oven-dried opium increased to 1,278 tons in 2002, more than doubled by 2003, and nearly doubled again during 2004. In late 2004, the U. S. government estimated that 206,000 hectares were under poppy cultivation, 4. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, 5% of the country's total cropland, and produced 4,200 metric tons of opium, 87% of the world's supply, yielding 60% of Afghanistan's gross domestic product. [73] In 2006, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime estimated production to have risen 59% to 407,000 acres (1,650 km²) in cultivation, yielding 6,100 tons of opium, 92% of the world's supply. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC is a United Nations agency that was established in 1997 as the Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention [74] The value of the resulting heroin was estimated at $3. 5 billion, of which Afghan farmers were estimated to have received $700 million in revenue (of which the Taliban have been estimated to have collected anywhere from tens of millions to $140 million in taxes). [75] For farmers, the crop can be up to ten times more profitable than wheat.
An increasingly large fraction of opium is processed into morphine base and heroin in drug labs in Afghanistan. Despite an international set of chemical controls designed to restrict availability of acetic anhydride, it enters the country, perhaps through its Central Asian neighbors which do not participate. Acetic anhydride is the Chemical compound with the formula (CH3CO2O A counternarcotics law passed in December 2005 requires Afghanistan to develop registries or regulations for tracking, storing, and owning acetic anhydride. [76]
Besides Afghanistan, smaller quantities of opium are produced in Pakistan, the Golden Triangle region of Southeast Asia (particularly Myanmar), Colombia and Mexico. The Golden Triangle is one of Asia 's two main illicit Opium -producing areas Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America.
Legal production
Legal opium production is allowed under the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and other international drug treaties, subject to strict supervision by the law enforcement agencies of individual countries. Opium licensing is a policy instrument used to counter illegal drug cultivation and production The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is an international Treaty to prohibit production and supply of specific (nominally Narcotic) Drugs and of drugs This is the list of US state and local law enforcement agencies &mdash statewide Government agencies ( State police) of the U The leading legal production method is the Gregory process, whereby the entire poppy, excluding roots and leaves, is mashed and stewed in dilute acid solutions. The alkaloids are then recovered via acid-base extraction and purified. This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Acid-base extraction is a procedure using sequential Liquid-liquid extractions to purify Acids and bases from mixtures based on their chemical properties This process was developed in the UK during World War II, when wartime shortages of many essential drugs encouraged innovation in pharmaceutical processing. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Essential medicines, as defined by the World Health Organization are "those drugs that satisfy the health care needs of the majority of the population they should therefore Reed Business Information is a large business publisher in the United States United Kingdom continental Europe Australia and Asia
Legal production in India is much more traditional. As of 1996, opium was collected by farmers who were licensed to grow 0. 1 hectare of opium poppies (0. 24 acre), who to maintain their licenses needed to sell 4. 5 kilograms of unadulterated raw opium paste at a fixed government price of 320 rupees ($8 US) per kilogram. One kilogram represents two days' work for a family. Some additional money is made by drying the poppy heads and collecting poppy seeds, and a small fraction of opium beyond the quota may be consumed locally or diverted to the black market. The opium paste is sun-dried and stirred in large pans before it is packed into cases of 60 kilograms for export. Purification of chemical constituents is done in India for domestic production, but typically done abroad by foreign importers. [77]
Legal opium importation from India and Turkey is conducted by Mallinckrodt, Noramco, Abbott Laboratories, and Purdue Pharma in the United States, and legal opium production is conducted by GlaxoSmithKline, Johnson and Johnson, Johnson Matthey, and Mayne in Tasmania, Australia; Sanofi Aventis in France; Shionogi Pharmaceutical in Japan; and MacFarlan Smith in the United Kingdom. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Mallinckrodt Incorporated is a set of pharmaceutical chemical imaging and respiratory equipment suppliers based in the St Abbott Laboratories ( is a diversified pharmaceuticals Health care company Purdue Pharma LP is a privately-held Pharmaceutical company founded by Physicians It is located in Stamford, Connecticut. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the GlaxoSmithKline plc () is a United Kingdom -based pharmaceutical, biological and Healthcare Company. Johnson & Johnson ( is a global American Pharmaceutical, Medical devices and consumer packaged goods Manufacturer founded in 1886 Johnson Matthey plc ( is a British chemical company which has its headquarters near Holborn in central London. Tasmania is an Australian island and state of the same name It is located south of the eastern side of the Continent, being separated from it by Bass For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Sanofi-Aventis () headquartered in Paris, France, is a multinational pharmaceutical company The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located [78] The UN treaty requires that every country submit annual reports to the International Narcotics Control Board, stating that year's actual consumption of many classes of controlled drugs as well as opioids and projecting required quantities for the next year. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB is the independent and quasi-judicial control organ for the implementation of the United Nations drug conventions This is to allow trends in consumption to be monitored and production quotas allotted.
A recent proposal from the European Senlis Council hopes to solve the problems caused by the massive quantity of opium produced illegally in Afghanistan, most of which is converted to heroin and smuggled for sale in Europe and the USA. The Senlis Council The Senlis Council is an international Think tank known for its work in Afghanistan and other conflict zones such as Iraq and Afghanistan is as of March 2008 the greatest illicit (in Western World standards Opium producer in the world before Burma ( Myanmar) part of the so-called " This proposal is to license Afghan farmers to produce opium for the world pharmaceutical market, and thereby solve another problem, that of chronic underuse of potent analgesics where required within developing nations. Opium licensing is a policy instrument used to counter illegal drug cultivation and production Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties Part of the proposal is to overcome the "80-20 rule" that requires the U. S. to purchase 80% of its legal opium from India and Turkey to include Afghanistan, by establishing a second-tier system of supply control that complements the current INCB regulated supply and demand system by providing poppy-based medicines to countries who cannot meet their demand under the current regulations. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Senlis arranged a conference in Kabul that brought drug policy experts from around the world to meet with Afghan government officials to discuss internal security, corruption issues, and legal issues within Afghanistan. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, [79] In June 2007, the Council launched a "Poppy for Medicines" project that provides a technical blueprint for the implementation of an integrated control system within Afghan village-based poppy for medicine projects: the idea promotes the economic diversification by redirecting proceeds from the legal cultivation of poppy and production of poppy-based medicines (See Senlis Council). The Senlis Council The Senlis Council is an international Think tank known for its work in Afghanistan and other conflict zones such as Iraq and [80]
Cultivation in the UK
In late 2006, the British government permitted the pharmaceutical company Macfarlan Smith (a Johnson Matthey company) to cultivate opium poppies in England for medicinal reasons, after Macfarlan Smith's primary source, India, decided to increase the price of export opium latex. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Johnson Matthey plc ( is a British chemical company which has its headquarters near Holborn in central London. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland This move is well received by British farmers, with a major opium poppy field based in Didcot, England. Didcot is a Town in the Thames Valley, in the English county of Oxfordshire (although formerly in Berkshire) England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The British government has contradicted the Home Office's suggestion that opium cultivation can be legalized in Afghanistan for exports to the United Kingdom, helping lower poverty and internal fighting whilst helping NHS to meet the high demand for morphine and diamorphine. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Opium poppy cultivation in the United Kingdom does not need a licence; however, a licence is required for those wishing to extract opium for medicinal products. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the [81]
Consumption
In the industrialized world, the USA is the world's biggest consumer of prescription opioids, with Italy one of the lowest. [82] Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its alkaloid constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin rather than with pure and untouched opium. This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative
Intravenous injection of opiates is most used: by comparison with injection, "dragon chasing" (heating of heroin with barbital on a piece of foil) and "ack ack" (smoking of cigarettes containing heroin powder) are only 40% and 20% efficient, respectively. In Pharmacology and Toxicology, a route Barbital (marketed under the brand name Veronal) also called barbitone was the first commercially marketed Barbiturate. A cigarette ( French "small Cigar " from cigar + -ette) is a product consumed through Smoking and manufactured [83] One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio (1. 8% of the group dying per year). [84] Most heroin deaths result not from overdose per se, but combination with other depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon The benzodiazepines (pronounced, often abbreviated to "benzos") are a class of Psychoactive drugs with varying Hypnotic [85]
The smoking of opium does not involve the pyrolysis of the material as might be imagined. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam Rather, the prepared opium is indirectly heated to temperatures at which the active alkaloids, chiefly morphine, are vaporized. In the past, smokers would utilize a specially designed opium pipe which had a removable knob-like pipe-bowl of fired earthenware attached by a metal fitting to a long, cylindrical stem. An opium pipe is a pipe designed for the vaporization and inhalation of Opium. [86] A small "pill" of opium about the size of a pea would be placed on the pipe-bowl, which was then heated by holding it over an opium lamp, a special oil lamp with a distinct funnel-like chimney to channel heat into a small area. An opium lamp is an oil lamp designed specifically to facilitate the vaporization and inhalation of Opium. The smoker would lie on his or her side in order to guide the pipe-bowl and the tiny pill of opium over the stream of heat rising from the chimney of the oil lamp and inhale the vaporized opium fumes as needed. Several pills of opium were smoked at a single session depending on the smoker's tolerance to the drug. The effects could last up to twelve hours.
In Eastern culture, opium is more commonly used in the form of paregoric to treat diarrhea. The term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various Cultures social structures and philosophical systems of " the East " Paregoric, or Camphorated Tincture of Opium, also known as tinctura opii camphorata, is a Medication known for its Antidiarrheal In Medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences) is frequent loose or liquid Bowel movements Acute diarrhea This is a weaker solution than laudanum, an alcoholic tincture which was prevalently used as a pain medication and sleeping aid. Laudanum (ˈlȯd-nəm or ˈlȯ-də-nəm also known as Opium Tincture or Tincture of Opium, is an Alcoholic herbal preparation Tincture of opium has been prescribed for, among other things, severe diarrhea. [87] Taken thirty minutes prior to meals, it significantly slows intestinal motility, giving the intestines greater time to absorb fluid in the stool.
Chemical and physiological properties
Opium contains two main groups of alkaloids. An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body For other uses see Opiate (disambiguation, or for the class of drugs see Opioid. Morphinan is the base chemical structure of a subgroup of Opioids It is also an alternative name for the drug Dromoran, which is a racaemic parent drug of Levo-Dromoran® This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Those that use opium are commonly referred to as "opiats" (Coined by James St. Louis). Phenanthrenes include morphine, codeine, and thebaine and are the main narcotic constituents. Phenanthrene is a Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon composed of three fused Benzene rings Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Codeine ( INN) or methylmorphine is an Opiate used for its Analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrheal properties Parameters work only in their own section When a parameter is not needed please leave it empty when a parameter is wrong just clear Isoquinolines such as papaverine have no significant central nervous system effects and are not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act. Isoquinoline, also known as benzopyridine or 2-benzanine, is a Heterocyclic Aromatic Organic compound. Papaverine (pəˈpævəriːn is an Opium Alkaloid used primarily in the treatment of visceral Spasm, Vasospasm (especially those involving the In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. The Controlled Substances Act ( CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Morphine is by far the most prevalent and important alkaloid in opium, consisting of 10%-16% of the total, and is responsible for most of its harmful effects such as lung edema, respiratory difficulties, coma, or cardiac or respiratory collapse, with a normal lethal dose of 120 to 250 milligrams[88]—the amount found in approximately two grams of opium. [89] Morphine binds to and activates μ-opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, stomach and intestine. In a Sensory system, a sensory receptor is a structure that recognizes a stimulus in the internal or external environment of an Organism. Regular use leads to physical tolerance and dependence. Chronic opium addicts in 1906 China[90] or modern-day Iran[91] consume an average of eight grams daily.
Both analgesia and drug addiction are functions of the mu opioid receptor, the class of opioid receptor first identified as responsive to morphine. Drug addiction is widely considered a pathological state. The disorder of addiction involves the progression of acute Drug use to the development of drug-seeking The μ opioid receptors (MOR are a class of Opioid Opioid receptors are a group of G-protein coupled receptors with Opioids as Ligands The Endogenous Opioids are Dynorphins Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Tolerance is associated with the superactivation of the receptor, which may be affected by the degree of endocytosis caused by the opioid administered, and leads to a superactivation of cyclic AMP signalling. Endocytosis is a process where cells absorb material ( Molecules such as proteins from the outside by engulfing it with their Cell membrane. An opioid is a chemical Substance that has a Morphine -like action in the body Cyclic adenosine monophosphate ( cAMP, cyclic AMP or 3'-5'-cyclic Adenosine monophosphate) is a Second messenger that is important in many biological [92] Long-term use of morphine in palliative care and management of chronic pain can be managed without the development of drug tolerance or physical dependence. Palliative care (from Latin palliare to cloak is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of Disease Symptoms Chronic pain is defined as Pain that persists longer than the temporal course of natural healing associated with a particular type of injury or disease process Drug tolerance occurs when a subject's reaction to a Psychoactive drug (such as a painkiller or intoxicant decreases so that larger doses are required to achieve the same effect Physical dependence (or drug dependence) refers to a state resulting from habitual use of a drug where negative physical Withdrawal symptoms result from abrupt discontinuation Many techniques of drug treatment exist, including pharmacologically based treatments with naltrexone, methadone, or ibogaine [93]. Naltrexone is an Opioid receptor antagonist used primarily in the management of Alcohol dependence and Opioid dependence. Methadone ( Dolophine Amidone Methadose Physeptone Heptadon and many others is a synthetic Opioid, used medically as an Analgesic, Antitussive Ibogaine is a naturally-occurring Psychoactive compound found in a number of plants principally in a member of the dogbane family known as iboga (
Cultural references
There is a rich and longstanding literature by and about opium users. Thomas De Quincey's 1822 Confessions of an English Opium-Eater is one of the first and most famous literary accounts of opium addiction written from the point of view of an addict and details both the pleasures and the dangers of the drug. Thomas de Quincey (15 August 1785 &ndash 8 December 1859 was an English author and intellectual best known for his Confessions of an English Opium-Eater Confessions of an English Opium-Eater ( 1821) is an autobiographical account written by Thomas De Quincey, about his Laudanum ( De Quincey writes about the great English Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), whose poem "Kubla Khan" is also widely considered to be a poem of the opium experience. Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( 21 October 1772 &ndash 25 July 1834) was an English Poet, Critic and philosopher " Kubla Khan or a Vision in a Dream A Fragment " is a poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which takes its title from the Mongol and Chinese Coleridge began using opium in 1791 after developing jaundice and rheumatic fever and became a full addict after a severe attack of the disease in 1801, requiring 80-100 drops of laudanum daily. Jaundice, also known as icterus (attributive adjective "icteric" is yellowish discoloration of the Skin, sclerae (whites of the eyes Rheumatic fever is an Autoimmune inflammatory Disease which may develop two to three weeks after a Group A streptococcal infection (such as [94] "The Lotos-Eaters", an 1832 poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson, reflects the generally favorable British attitude toward the drug. Alfred Tennyson 1st Baron Tennyson (6 August 1809 – 6 October 1892 was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom and remains one of the most popular English poets In The Count of Monte Cristo (1844) by Alexandre Dumas, père, the Count is assuaged by an edible form of opium, and his experience with it is depicted vividly. The Count of Monte Cristo ( Le Comte de Monte-Cristo) is an Adventure novel by Alexandre Dumas père.
Edgar Allan Poe presents opium in a more disturbing context in his 1838 short story "Ligeia", in which the narrator, deeply distraught for the loss of his beloved, takes solace in opium until he "had become a bounden slave in the trammels of opium", unable to distinguish fantasy from reality after taking immoderate doses of opium. Edgar Allan Poe (January 19 1809 – October 7 1849 was an American poet, short-story Writer, editor and Literary critic, " Ligeia " is an early Short story written by Edgar Allan Poe, first published in 1838. In music, Hector Berlioz' 1830 Symphony Fantastique tells the tale of an artist who has poisoned himself with opium while in the depths of despair for a hopeless love. An Episode in the Life of the Artist Opus 14 usually referred to by its subtitle Symphonie fantastique ( Fantasy Symphony) is Each of the symphony's five movements takes place at a different setting and with increasingly audible effects from the drug. A symphony is a Musical composition, often extended and usually for Orchestra. For example, in the fourth movement, "Marche au Supplice", the artist dreams that he is walking to his own execution. In the fifth movement, "Songe d’une Nuit du Sabbat", he dreams that he is at a witch's orgy, where he witnesses his beloved dancing wildly along to the demented Dies Irae. The Witches' Sabbath or Sabbat is a supposed meeting of those who practice Witchcraft, Satanism, or other rites Dies Irae (Day of Wrath is a famous thirteenth century Latin Hymn thought to be written by Thomas of Celano.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, references to opium and opium addiction in the context of crime and the foreign underclass abound in English literature, such as in the opening paragraphs of Charles Dickens's 1870 serial The Mystery of Edwin Drood and in Arthur Conan Doyle's 1891 Sherlock Holmes short story "The Man with the Twisted Lip". The term English literature refers to Literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by Writers not necessarily from The Mystery of Edwin Drood is the final Novel by Charles Dickens. Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle, DL (22 May 1859 – 7 July 1930 was an Anglo-Scottish Author most noted for his stories about the Sherlock Holmes is a famous fictional detective of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who first appeared in Publication in 1887 "The Man with the Twisted Lip", one of the 58 short Sherlock Holmes stories written by British author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, is the sixth of the twelve In Oscar Wilde's 1890 The Picture of Dorian Gray, the protagonist visits an opium den "for forgetfulness", unable to bear the guilt and shame of committing murder. Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900 was an Irish Playwright, Novelist, poet and Author of The Picture of Dorian Gray is the only published Novel written by Oscar Wilde, first appearing as the lead story in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine Opium likewise underwent a transformation in Chinese literature, becoming associated with indolence and vice by the early twentieth century. [44] Perhaps the best-known literary reference to opium is Karl Marx's metaphor in his "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of Right'", where he refers to religion as "the opium of the people. " (This phrase is more commonly quoted as "the opiate of the masses. ")
In the twentieth century, as the use of opium was eclipsed by morphine and heroin, its role in literature became more limited, and often focused on issues related to its prohibition. Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative In The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck, Wang Lung, the protagonist, gets his troublesome uncle and aunt addicted to opium in order to keep them out of his hair. The Good Earth is a Novel by Pearl S Buck published in 1931 and awarded the Pulitzer Prize for the Novel in 1932. Pearl S Buck ( Traditional Chinese: 賽珍珠 Simplified Chinese: 赛珍珠 Pinyin: Sài Zhēnzhū ( June 26, William S. Burroughs autobiographically describes the use of opium beside that of its derivatives. William Seward Burroughs II ( – ˈbʌroʊz was an American Novelist, Essayist, Social critic, painter and Spoken word His associate Jack Black's memoir You Can't Win chronicles one man's experience both as an onlooker in the opium dens of San Francisco, and later as a "hop fiend" himself. Jack Black was a late 19th century/early 20th century Hobo and professional Burglar, living out the dying age of the Wild West. For the upcoming film based on the book see You Can't Win (film The book and subsequent movie The Wonderful Wizard of Oz may allude to opium at one point in the story, when Dorothy and her friends are drawn into a field of poppies, in which they fall asleep.
See also
- Opium pipe
- Opium lamp
- Opium den
- Opium poppy
- Opium wars
- Forbes family
- Imperialism in Asia
- Jardine Matheson Holdings
- Laudanum
- Nabidh
- Opium of the masses
- Opium production in Afghanistan
- Protocol for Limiting and Regulating the Cultivation of the Poppy Plant, the Production of, International and Wholesale Trade in, and Use of Opium
- Psychoactive drug
- Sir Thomas Browne
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Paul L. An opium pipe is a pipe designed for the vaporization and inhalation of Opium. An opium lamp is an oil lamp designed specifically to facilitate the vaporization and inhalation of Opium. An opium den was an establishment where Opium was sold and smoked The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the type of Poppy from which Opium and many refined opiates such as Morphine, Thebaine The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing The Forbes family is a wealthy extended American family originating in Boston. Imperialism in Asia traces its roots back to the late fifteenth century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of Jardine Matheson Holdings Limited (,) often called Jardines or Jardine's (怡和 is a Multinational corporation that is incorporated in Laudanum (ˈlȯd-nəm or ˈlȯ-də-nəm also known as Opium Tincture or Tincture of Opium, is an Alcoholic herbal preparation Nabidh was an intoxicating beverage Narrated Abu Hurayrah I knew that the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him used to keep fast " Religion is the Opiate of the people " is one of the most frequently quoted statements of Karl Marx. Afghanistan is as of March 2008 the greatest illicit (in Western World standards Opium producer in the world before Burma ( Myanmar) part of the so-called " The Protocol for Limiting and Regulating the Cultivation of the Poppy Plant the Production of International and Wholesale Trade in and Use of Opium, signed on June 23 1953 A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain Sir Thomas Browne ( October 19, 1605 &ndash October 19, 1682) was an English author of varied works which disclose his wide learning Schiff, Jr. (2002). Opium and its alkaloids. Retrieved on 2007-05-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen
- ^ Suzanne Carr (1995). MS thesis. Retrieved on 2007-05-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire. (citing Andrew Sherratt)
- ^ a b c M J Brownstein (1993-06-15). "A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90 (12): 5391–5393. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 8390660.
- ^ a b c d PBS Frontline (1997). The Opium Kings. Retrieved on 2007-05-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire.
- ^ a b P. G. Kritikos and S. P. Papadaki (1967-01-01). "The early history of the poppy and opium". Journal of the Archaeological Society of Athens.
- ^ E. Guerra Doce (2006-01-01). "Evidencias del consumo de drogas en Europa durante la Prehistoria" (in Spanish). Trastornos Adictivos 8 (1): 53–61. (includes image)
- ^ Ibraham B. Syed. Alcohol and Islam.
- ^ Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine: a note on pharmaceutics. Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Julius Berendes (1902). De Materia Medica (German). Retrieved on 2007-05-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Carl A. Trocki (2002). Opium as a commodity and the Chinese drug plague. Retrieved on 2005-06-07. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ Answers.com: al-Razi.
- ^ "Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (841-926)" (2002-01). Saudi Aramco World.
- ^ El Zahrawi - Father Of Surgery. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ SURGERY IN ISLAM: A HISTORICAL AND CURRENT REAPPRAISAL: Lecture to second-year medical students at the Kulliyah of Medicine, International Islamic University, Kuantan on October 17, 1998 by Prof Dr Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr. Events 539 BC - King Cyrus The Great of Persia marches into the city of Babylon, releasing the Jews from almost Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) . Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ Richard Dean Smith (1980). Avicenna and the Canon of Medicine: a millennial tribute 367-370. Retrieved on 2005-07-07. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death
- ^ Ganidagli, Suleyman M. D. , Cengiz, Mustafa M. D. , Aksoy, Sahin M. D. , Ph. D. , Verit, Ayhan M. D. (2004-01). "Approach to Painful Disorders by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu in the Fifteenth Century Ottoman Period". Anesthesiology 100 (1): 165–169. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Pseudo-Apuleius: Papaver. Retrieved on 2007-06-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history
- ^ Paracelsus: the philosopher's stone made flesh. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ The devil's doctor. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ PARACELSUS, Five Hundred Years: Three American Exhibits. Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Paracelsus: the philosopher's stone made flesh. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ Stephen Harding, Lee Ann Olivier, and Olivera Jokic. Victorians' Secret: Victorian Substance Abuse. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ Ole Daniel Enersen. Thomas Sydenham. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ Donna Young (2007-04-15). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English Scientists Examine Pain Relief and Addiction. Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Stephen R. Kandall, M.D.:Women and Addiction in the United States—1850 to 1920
- ^ a b c Yangwen Zheng (2003). "The Social Life of Opium in China, 1483-1999". Modern Asian Studies 37 (1): 1–39. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Commissioner Jesse B. Cook (1931-06). San Francisco's Old Chinatown. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 66 - Emperor Nero creates the Legion I Italica. 1236 - The Lithuanians
- ^ H. H. Kane, M. D. (1881-09-24). American Opium Smokers. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 66 - Emperor Nero creates the Legion I Italica. 1236 - The Lithuanians
- ^ Opium degrading the French Navy (1913-04-27). Year 1913 ( MCMXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated Retrieved on 2007-09-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 66 - Emperor Nero creates the Legion I Italica. 1236 - The Lithuanians
- ^ Alfred W. McCoy}year=1972. The politics of heroin in Southeast Asia. Retrieved on 2007-09-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 622 - Prophet Muhammad completes his hegira from Mecca to Medina.
- ^ {{cite web}url=http://www.drugpolicy.org/library/opium_india.cfm|title=Opium and the British Indian Empire|author=John Richards|date=2001-05-23|accessdate=2007-09-24}}
- ^ Commissioner Jesse B. Cook (1931-06). San Francisco's Old Chinatown. Retrieved on 2007-09-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 66 - Emperor Nero creates the Legion I Italica. 1236 - The Lithuanians
- ^ John Rennie (2007-03-26). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. When a woman ruled Chinatown. Retrieved on 2007-05-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre.
- ^ J. P. Jones (February 1931). Lascars in the port of London. Retrieved on 2007-05-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre.
- ^ "Opium in the West. " Opium Museum. 2007. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ "Brilliant Chang in Limehouse. " EastLondonHistory.com. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ a b Alfred W. McCoy. Opium. Retrieved on 2007-06-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable
- ^ Wertz, Richard R. "Qing Era (1644-1912). " iBiblio. 1998. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ John K. Fairbanks, "The Creation of the Treaty System' in John K. Fairbanks, ed. The Cambridge History of China vol. 10 Part 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1992) p. 213. cited in John Newsinger (1997-10). "Britain's opium wars - fact and myth about the opium trade in the East". Monthly Review.
- ^ Alfred W. McCoy. Opium history, 1858 to 1940. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ Dikotter, Frank, Lars Laamann, and Zhou Xun Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China. Co-published with C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-0-226-14905-9 (ISBN-10: 0-226-14905-6) Spring 2004. [1][2]
- ^ Lodwick, Kathleen L. Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874-1917 (University Press of Kentucky) Online version at Google Books [ISBN 0813119243]
- ^ Ellen N. La Motte. The opium monopoly. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France
- ^ a b Joyce A. Madancy (2004-04). The Troublesome Legacy of Commissioner Lin. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France
- ^ William A Callahan (2004-05-08). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen Historical Legacies and Non/Traditional Security: Commemorating National Humiliation Day in China. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 939 - The Major Occultation or Ghaybat el-Kubra of Muhammad al-Mahdi 1099 - First Crusade: 15000
- ^ Michael Mackey (2004-04-29). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Banned in China for sex, drugs, disaffection. Retrieved on 2007-06-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable
- ^ Dale Gieringer (2007-03-04). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 51 - Nero, later to become Roman Emperor, is given the title Princeps iuventutis (head of the youth State's War on Drugs - a 100-Year Bust.
- ^ Peter McWilliams. Ain't Nobody's Business If You Do.
- ^ Legal Information Access Centre. Drug laws in Australia.
- ^ Carstairs C. (2006). Jailed for Possession: Illegal Drug Use, Regulation, and Power in Canada, 1920-61.
- ^ Ryan J Huxtable and Stephen K W Schwartz, Molecular Interventions 1:189-191, 2001 [3]
- ^ Anthony John Carter, Narcosis and nightshade", BMJ 1996;313:1630-1632 (21 December) [4]
- ^ Richard Askwith, The Sunday Times (September 13, 1998). Events 509 BC - The Temple of Jupiter on Rome 's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides of September Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) How aspirin turned hero. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ Operational Medicine 2001 Field Medical Service School Student Handbook: MOLLE MEDICAL BAG/SURGICAL INSTRUMENT SET (1999-12-07). Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways Retrieved on 2007-06-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden
- ^ Frick S, Kramell R, Schmidt J, Fist AJ, Kutchan TM (2005-05). "Comparative qualitative and quantitative determination of alkaloids in narcotic and condiment Papaver somniferum cultivars". J Nat Prod 68 (5): 666–73. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15921406.
- ^ Production of thebaine and oripavine (2004-04-20). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Retrieved on 2007-05-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England.
- ^ Meadway C, George S, Braithwaite R. (31-08-1998). "Opiate concentrations following the ingestion of poppy seed products--evidence for 'the poppy seed defence'. ". Forensic Sci Int. 96 (1): 29–38. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 9800363.
- ^ Trafkowski J, Madea B, Musshoff F, "The significance of putative urinary markers of illicit heroin use after consumption of poppy seed products. ", Ther Drug Monit 2006 Aug;28(4):552-8. PMID 16885724
- ^ Albert D. Fraser and David Worth (1999-10). Experience with a Urine Opiate Screening and Confirmation Cutoff of 2000 ng/ml 549-551. Retrieved on 2007-09-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France.
- ^ Jennifer Hull (2001-06-24). Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place Eastern Europe Shooting Up Under A Red Star. Retrieved on 2007-05-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England.
- ^ Anil Aggrawal. Narcotic Drugs.
- ^ G. Shuljgin. Cultivation of opium poppy and the oil poppy in the Soviet Union.
- ^ Belgische Farmacopee, 5de uitgave, 1966; part 3
- ^ Belgische Farmacopee, 5de uitgave, 1966; part 3
- ^ W. R. Martin and H. F. Fraser (1961). "A comparative study of subjective and physiological effects of heroin and morphine administered intravenously in postaddicts". Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics 133 (3): 388–399. PMID 13767429.
- ^ Robinson SL, Rowbotham DJ, Smith G. (1991-07). "Morphine compared with diamorphine. A comparison of dose requirements and side-effects after hip surgery. ". Anesthesia 46 (7): 538–40.
- ^ Interpol.
- ^ UNODC World Drug Report 2005 (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ Jeff Sheehy and Corinna Kaarlela (2004-01-26). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1340 - King Edward III of England is declared King of France. Black tar heroin use explains lower HIV levels among intravenous drug users in the Western U.S.. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and
- ^ Alfred W. McCoy. Opium History, 1858 To 1940. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ Mark Corcoran. Afghanistan: America's blind eye. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople
- ^ Jerry Seper (2004). U.S. set to target Afghan opium. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople
- ^ Rebuilding Afghanistan: Weekly Activity Update (February 24, 2005). Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople
- ^ BBC News (2006-08-02). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 338 BC - A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the UN warns of soaring Afghan opium. Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ Jason Straziuso, Associated Press (2007-04-13). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Taliban taxes opium to fund insurgency. Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- ^ International Narcotics Control Strategy Report: Chemical controls. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople
- ^ Pablo Bartholomew (1996). Opium for the masses: photo essay on cultivation of opium in India. Retrieved on 2007-06-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history
- ^ Senlis Council. Feasibility Study on Opium Licensing in Afghanistan.
- ^ Senlis Council (2005-09-26). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a The Kabul International Symposium on Drug Policy. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ "Poppy for Medicine: Licensing poppy for the production of essential medicines: an integrated counter-narcotics, development, and counter-insurgency model for Afghanistan. " Senlis Council. The Senlis Council The Senlis Council is an international Think tank known for its work in Afghanistan and other conflict zones such as Iraq and June 2007. Retrieved on September 21, 2007. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ The painkilling fields: England's opium poppies that tackle the NHS morphine crisis, Press release, 2007-15-09.
- ^ S. Mercadante. Oral morphine consumption in Italy and Sicily. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ Benjamin Pui-Nin Mo and E. Leong Way (1966). "AN ASSESSMENT OF INHALATION AS A MODE OF ADMINISTRATION OF HEROIN BY ADDICTS". Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics 154 (1): 142–151. PMID 5924312.
- ^ Karl A. Sporer, M. D. (1999-04-06). "Acute Heroin Overdose" 130 (7): 584–590.
- ^ Darke S, Zador D. (1996-12}volume=91). "Fatal heroin 'overdose': a review". Addiction (12): 1765-72. Addiction is a monthly Peer reviewed Scientific journal founded in 1884 by the Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and other PMID 8997759.
- ^ The Opium Museum.
- ^ Laudanum. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ Mallinckrodt MSDS.
- ^ Anil Aggrawal. Narcotic Drugs.
- ^ Alfred W. McCoy. Opium History, 1858 To 1940. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ Max CHAMKA; Translated by Geraldine RING. 3 grams of opium for 1 dollar. Caucaz europenews. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance.
- ^ Finn AK and Whistler JL (2001-12-06). Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev Endocytosis of the mu receptor reduces tolerance and a cellular hallmark of opioid withdrawal 829-39.
- ^ K. R. Alper, H. S. Lotsof, C. D. Kaplan (2008). "The Ibogaine Medical Subculture". J. Ethnopharmacology 115: 9–24. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Douglas Hubble (1956-02-28). Opium Addiction and English Literature. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and
Further reading
- Ahmad, Diana L. The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth-century American West (University of Nevada Press, 2007). Drugs and Racism in the Old West.
- Armero and Rapaport. The Arts of an Addiction. Qing Dynasty Opium Pipes and Accessories (privately printed, 2005)
- Booth, Martin. Opium: A History. London: Simon & Schuster, Ltd. , 1996.
- Day, Horace B. (1868). The Opium Habit.
- de Quincey, Thomas (1821). Confessions of an English opium-eater.
- Fairbank, J. K. (1978) The Cambridge History of China: volume 10 part I, Cambridge, CUP
- Franck Daninos, L'opium légal produit en France, La Recherche, May 2005
- Great Britain (1913). La Recherche is a monthly French language Popular science Magazine covering recent scientific news Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal for regulation of the opium monopolies of the colonies of Hong Kong and Macao.
- Great Britain, India office (1922). The truth about Indian opium.
- Hai guan zong shui wu si shu (1889). The poppy in China.
- Hideyuki Takano; The Shore Beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom (2002, Kotan, ISBN 0970171617)
- Latimer, Dean, and Jeff Goldberg with an Introduction by William Burroughs. Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981
- MacPherson, Duncan (1843). Two years in China. Narrative of the Chinese expedition, from its formation in April, 1840, to the treaty of peace in August, 1842.
- Martin, Steven. The Art of Opium Antiques. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007.
- McCoy, Alfred W. The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade. New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991.
- Merwin, Samuel (1907). Drugging a nation, the story of China and the opium curse; a personal investigation, during an extended tour, of the present conditions of the opium trade in China and its effects upon the nation.
- Morewood, Samuel (1838). A philosophical and statistical history of the inventions and customs of ancient and modern nations in the manufacture and use of inebriating liquors; with the present practice of distillation in all its varieties: together with an extensive illustration of the consumption and effects of opium, and other stimulants used in the East, as substitutes for wine and spirits.
- Musto, David F. The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
- Nye, Gideon (1873). The morning of my life in China : comprising an outline of the history of foreign intercourse from the last year of the regime of honorable East India Company, 1833, to the imprisonment of the foreign community in 1839.
- Ouchterlony, John (1844). The Chinese war : an account of all the operations of the British forces from the commencement to the Treaty of Nanking.
- Speer, William (1870). The oldest and the newest empire : China and the United States.
- Thelwall, A. S. (1839). The iniquities of the opium trade with China ; being a development of the main causes which exclude the merchants of Great Britain from the advantages of an unrestricted commercial intercourse with that vast empire. With extracts from authentic documents.
- Turner, Frederick Storrs (1876). British opium policy and its results to India and China.
External links
- National Institute on Drug Abuse: Heroin and related topics
- Iowa Substance Abuse Information Center: Heroin and other opiates
- DEA drug information: Opium, morphine, and heroin
- Erowid: Opiates / Opioids
- Hall of Opium Virtual museum (Macromedia Flash presentation)
- Opium Museum: Opium paraphernalia and historical photos of opium smokers
- Opium Made Easy by Michael Pollan (originally appeared in Harper's. Harper's Magazine (also Harper's) is a monthly general-interest Magazine of literature politics culture finance and the arts )
- Confessions of a Poppy Tea addict
- Geopium: Opium politics, geography, and photos (site mostly in French)
- Opium in India
- Opium in Japan
- From Flowers to Heroin, CIA publication
- BLTC Research: Speculations on the future of opioids
- Thailex photo: Traditional method of using opium in Thailand
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic