Ophthalmology is the branch of medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways, including the eye, brain, and areas surrounding the eye, such as the lacrimal system and eyelids. The slit lamp is an instrument consisting of a high-intensity Light source that can be focused to shine as a slit Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain By convention the term ophthalmologist is more restricted and implies a medically trained surgical specialist. Since ophthalmologists perform operations on eyes, they are generally categorized as surgeons. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental

The word ophthalmology comes from the Greek roots ophthalmos meaning eye and logos meaning word, thought or discourse; ophthalmology literally means "The science of eyes. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly " As a discipline it applies to animal eyes also, since the differences from human practice are surprisingly minor and are related mainly to differences in anatomy or prevalence, not differences in disease processes. However, veterinary medicine is regulated separately in many countries and states/provinces resulting in few ophthalmologists treating both humans and animals.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Sushruta 1.2 Pre-Hippocrates 1.3 Alexandrian studies 1.4 Rufus 1.5 After Galen 1.6 Muslim ophthalmology 1.7 Seventeenth and eighteenth century 1.8 Ophthalmic surgery in Great Britain 2 Professional requirements 2.1 United States 2.2 United Kingdom 2.3 Australia and New Zealand 2.4 India 2.5 Pakistan 2.6 Canada 2.7 Finland 2.8 Veterinary 3 Distinction from Optometry 4 Sub-specialities 5 Ophthalmic surgery 6 Notable ophthalmologists 6.1 Pre-18th century 6.2 18th-19th century 6.3 20th-21st century 7 See also 8 External links 9 References

History

The eye, including its structure and mechanism, has fascinated scientists and the public in general since ancient times. The majority of all input to the brain comes from vision. Many of the expressions in the English language that mean to understand are equivalent vision terms. "I see", to mean I understand.

Many patients when told that they may have an eye problem will be more concerned about diseases that affect vision than other, more lethal diseases. Being deprived of sight can have a devastating effect on the psyche, as well as economic and social effects, as many blind individuals require significant assistance with activities of daily living and are often unable to continue gainful employment previously held while seeing.

The maintenance of ocular health and correction of eye problems that decrease vision contribute greatly to the ability to appreciate the longer lifespan that all of medicine continues to allow. Given the importance of vision to quality of life, many ophthalmologists consider their job to be rewarding, as they are often able to restore or improve a patient's sight. As detailed below, advances in diagnosis and treatment of disease, and improved surgical techniques have extended our abilities to restore vision like never before.

Sushruta

Sushruta wrote Sushruta Samhita in about fifth Century BCE in India. Sushruta was a surgeon and teacher of Ayurveda who flourished in the Indian city of Kashi by the 6th century BCE The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on Surgery, attributed to Sushruta, (6th century BCE the "father of Surgery" He described about 72 ocular diseases as well as several ophthalmological surgical instruments and techniques. Sushruta has been described as the first Indian cataract surgeon. [1] [2] Arab scientists are some of the earliest to have written about and drawn the anatomy of the eye—the earliest known diagram being in Hunain ibn Is-hâq's Book of the Ten Treatises on the Eye. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential Earlier manuscripts exist which refer to diagrams which are not known to have survived. Current knowledge of the Græco-Roman understanding of the eye is limited, as many manuscripts lacked diagrams. In fact, there are very few Græco-Roman diagrams of the eye still in existence. Thus, it is not clear to which structures the texts refer, and what purpose they were thought to have.

Pre-Hippocrates

The pre-Hippocratics largely based their anatomical conceptions of the eye on speculation, rather than empiricism. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. They recognized the sclera and transparent cornea running flushly as the outer coating of the eye, with an inner layer with pupil, and a fluid at the centre. It was believed, by Alcamaeon and others, that this fluid was the medium of vision and flowed from the eye to the brain via a tube. Alcmaeon ( Gr) of Croton (in Magna Græcia) was one of the most eminent natural philosophers and medical theorists of antiquity Aristotle advanced such ideas with empiricism. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He dissected the eyes of animals, and discovering three layers (not two), found that the fluid was of a constant consistency with the lens forming (or congealing) after death, and the surrounding layers were seen to be juxtaposed. He, and his contemporaries, further put forth the existence of three tubes leading from the eye, not one. One tube from each eye met within the skull.

Alexandrian studies

Alexandrian studies extensively contributed to knowledge of the eye. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Aëtius tells us that Herophilus dedicated an entire study to the eye which no longer exists. Aëtius Amidenus or Aëtius of Amida ( Gr) was a Byzantine physician and medical writer particularly distinguished by the extent Herophilos, sometimes Latinized Herophilus (335-280 BC was a Greek physician In fact, no manuscripts from the region and time are known to have survived, leading us to rely on Celsius' account—which is seen as a confused account written by a man who did not know the subject matter. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. From Celsius it is known that the lens had been recognised, and they no longer saw a fluid flowing to the brain through some hollow tube, but likely a continuation of layers of tissue into the brain. Celsius failed to recognise the retina's role, and did not think it was the tissue that continued into the brain.

Rufus

Rufus recognised a more modern eye, with conjunctiva, extending as a fourth epithelial layer over the eye. Rufus of Ephesus ( fl late 1st century AD was an ancient physician and author who wrote treatises on Dietetics, Pathology, Anatomy, and patient The conjunctiva is a clear membrane that covers the Sclera (white part of the Eye) and lines the inside of the Eyelids It is made of lymphoid tissue Rufus was the first to recognise a two chambered eye - with one chamber from cornea to lens (filled with water), the other from lens to retina (filled with an egg-white-like substance). Galen remedied some mistakes including the curvature of the cornea and lens, the nature of the optic nerve, and the existence of a posterior chamber. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Though this model was roughly a correct but simplistic modern model of the eye, it contained errors. Yet it was not advanced upon again until after Vesalius. Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician A ciliary body was then discovered and the sclera, retina, choroid and cornea were seen to meet at the same point. The ciliary body is the circumferential tissue inside the Eye composed of the Ciliary muscle and Ciliary processes. The two chambers were seen to hold the same fluid as well as the lens being attached to the choroid. Galen continued the notion of a central canal, though he dissected the optic nerve, and saw it was solid, He mistakenly counted seven optical muscles, one too many. He also knew of the tear ducts. The nasolacrimal duct (sometimes called tear ducts) carries Tears from the Lacrimal sac into the Nasal cavity.

After Galen

After Galen a period of speculation is again noted by Arab scientists - the lens modified Galen's model to place the lens in the middle of the eye, a notion which lasted until Vesalius reversed the era of speculation. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding However, Vesalius was not an ophthalmologist and taught that the eye was a more primitive notion than the notion of both Galen and the Arabian scientists - the cornea was not seen as being of greater curvature and the posterior side of the lens wasn't seen to be larger.

Understanding of the eye had been so slow to develop because for a long time the lens was perceived to be the seat of vision, not as part of the pathway for vision. This mistake was corrected when Fabricius and his successors correctly placed the lens and developed the modern notion of the structure of the eye. Hieronymus Fabricius is the Latin name by which the Italian Anatomist Girolamo Fabrici ( May 20 1537 &ndash May 21 They removed the idea of Galen's seventh muscle (the retractor bulbi) and reinstated the correct curvatures of the lens and cornea, as well as stating the ciliary body as a connective structure between the lens and the choroid.

Muslim ophthalmology

Main article: Ophthalmology in medieval Islam

Of all the branches of Islamic medicine, ophthalmology was considered one of the foremost. Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. The specialized instruments used in their operations ran into scores. Innovations such as the “injection syringe”, invented by the Iraqi physician Ammar ibn Ali of Mosul, which was used for the extraction by suction of soft cataracts, were quite common. An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A syringe is a simple piston Pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity In cataract surgery, Ammar ibn Ali attempted the earliest extraction of cataracts using suction. Cataract surgery is the removal of the lens of the Eye (also called "crystalline" that has developed an opacification which is referred to as a Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure He introduced a hollow metallic syringe needle through the sclerotic and successfully extracted the cataracts through suction. A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a Syringe to inject substances into the body ^[1]

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), the "father of optics", studied the anatomy of the eye extensively. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration He made important contributions to ophthalmology and eye surgery and posited the first correct explanations of the process of sight and visual perception in his Book of Optics (1021). Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni ^[2] He was also the first to hint at the retina being involved in the process of image formation. The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive part inside the inner layer of the Eye. An image (from Latin imago) or picture is an artifact usually two-dimensional that has a similar appearance to some subject &mdashusually ^[3]

Ibn al-Nafis, in The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology, discovered that the muscle behind the eyeball does not support the ophthalmic nerve, that they do not get in contact with it, and that the optic nerves transect but do not get in touch with each other. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The ophthalmic nerve is one of the three branches of the Trigeminal nerve, the fifth Cranial nerve. The optic nerve, also called cranial nerve II, is the Nerve that transmits visual information from the Retina to the Brain. A transect is a path along which one records and counts occurrences of the phenomenon of study (e He also discovered many new treatments for glaucoma and the weakness of vision in one eye when the other eye is affected by disease. Glaucoma is a group of diseases of the Optic nerve involving loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern of optic neuropathy. The visual system is the part of the Nervous system which allows organisms to see. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly ^[4]

Seventeenth and eighteenth century

The seventeenth and eighteenth century saw the use of hand-lenses (by Malpighi), microscopes (van Leeuwenhoek), preparations for fixing the eye for study (Ruysch) and later the freezing of the eye (Petit). A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the posterior chamber, and of course the nature of the retina. In 1722 Leeuwenhoek noted the existence of rods and cones though they were not properly discovered until Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus in 1834 by use of a microscope. Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek (October 24 1632 &ndash August 30 1723 was a Dutch tradesman and Scientist from Delft, the Netherlands Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus ( February 4, 1776 - February 16, 1837) was a German naturalist.

Ophthalmic surgery in Great Britain

The first ophthalmic surgeon in Great Britain was John Freke, appointed to the position by the Governors of St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1727, but the establishment of the first dedicated ophthalmic hospital in 1805 - now called Moorfields Eye Hospital in London, England was a transforming event in modern ophthalmology. John Freke (1688-1756 was an English surgeon. Together with Percival Pott he was instrumental in separating the profession of surgeon from that of St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as Barts, is a hospital in Smithfield in the City of London, England. Clinical developments at Moorfields and the founding of the Institute of Ophthalmology by Sir Stewart Duke-Elder established the site as the largest eye hospital in the world and a nexus for ophthalmic research.

Professional requirements

Ophthalmologists are medical doctors (M. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health D. ) or Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine (D. O. ). who have completed a college degree, medical school, and an additional four years of post-graduate training in ophthalmology in many countries. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine Many ophthalmologists also undergo additional specialized training in one of the many subspecialities. Ophthalmology was the first branch of medicine to offer board certification, now a standard practice among all specialties.

United States

In the United States, four to five years of residency training after medical school are required, with the first year being an internship in surgery, internal medicine, pediatrics, or a general transition year. Most currently practicing ophthalmologists train in medical residency programs accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) and are board certified by the American Board of Ophthalmology. Some physicians train in osteopathic medical schools may hold a Doctor of Osteopathy degree denoted as DO rather than MD. The same residency and certification requirements for ophthalmology training must be fulfilled by osteopathic physicians (DO degree). Completing the requirements of continuing medical education is mandatory for continuing licensure and re-certification. Professional bodies like the AAO and ASCRS organize conferences and help members through CME programs to maintain certification, in addition to political advocacy and peer support.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, there are four colleges that grant postgraduate degrees in ophthalmology. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Royal College of Ophthalmologists grants MRCOphth and FRCOphth (postgraduate exams), the Royal College of Edinburgh grants MRCSEd, the Royal College of Glasgow grants FRCS and Royal College of Ireland grants FRCSI. Work experience as a specialist registrar and one of these degrees is required for specialisation in eye diseases. A specialist registrar or SpR is a doctor in the United Kingdom who is receiving advanced training in a specialist field of Medicine in order eventually

Australia and New Zealand

In Australia and New Zealand, the FRACO/FRANZCO is the equivalent postgraduate specialist qualification. Overseas-trained Ophthalmologists are assessed using the pathway published on the RANZCO website. Those who have completed their formal training in the UK and have the CCST/CCT are usually deemed to be comparable.

India

In India, after completing MBBS degree, post-graduation in Ophthalmology is required. The degrees are Doctor of Medicine (MD), Master of Surgery (MS), Diploma in Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery (DOMS) or Diplomate of National Board (DNB). The concurrent training and work experience is in the form of a Junior Residency at a Medical College, Eye Hospital or Institution under the supervision of experienced faculty. Further work experience in form of fellowship, registrar or senior resident refines the skills of these eye surgeons. All India Ophthalmological Society (AIOS) and various state level Ophthalmological Societies (like DOS) hold regular conferences and actively promote continuing medical education. Royal colleges of the united kingdom, mainly Royal college of surgeons of Edinburgh (RCSEd), Royal College of ophthalmologists (RCOphth) and Royal college of physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow (RCPSG) are conducting their fellowship and membership examinations since mid 1990s and awarding fellowships and memberships to the successful candidates.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, there is a structured residency program leading into FCPS. Further detail is at http://cpsp.edu.pk/

Canada

In Canada, an Ophthalmology residency after medical school is undertaken. The residency lasts a minimum of 5 years after the MD degree although subspecialty training is undertaken by about 30% of fellows (FRCSC). There are about 30 vacancies per year for ophthalmology training in all of Canada.

Finland

In Finland, physicians willing to become ophthalmologists must undergo a 5 year specialization which includes practical training and theoretical studies.

Veterinary

Formal specialty training programs in veterinary ophthalmology now exist in some countries [3] [4] [5]. Veterinary medicine the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife

Distinction from Optometry

Optometrists in the US can earn a Doctor of Optometry degree (OD). Optometry is a health care profession concerned with Eyes and related structures as well as vision, Visual systems and vision information As primary eye care providers, doctors of optometry are an integral part of the health care team, earning their Doctoral degree just as Dentistry and Podiatry. Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity Podiatry or podiatric medicine is a field of Healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the Foot, Ankle, and the "anatomical Optometrists are enabled to treat patients with medications and optical aids, including ordering and interpreting examinations, prescribing optical aids such as eyeglasses, treatment of infectious and inflammatory conditions, and treatment of allergies.

Ophthalmologists are surgical specialists who treat diseases affecting the eye, orbit, and visual system of the brain. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Ophthalmologists may also assist other specialists in treating other ocular disorders. Ophthalmologists may treat patients with surgery or medication. Many ophthalmologists receive further training in one or several of the following sub-specialties: Vitreoretinal disease, Pediatric Ophthalmology and Adult Strabismus, Cornea and External disease, Glaucoma, Neuro-Ophthalmology, Uveitis, Ocular Pathology and Oculoplastics. Glaucoma is a group of diseases of the Optic nerve involving loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern of optic neuropathy. Uveitis specifically refers to Inflammation of the middle layer of the Eye, termed the " Uvea " but in common usage may refer to any inflammatory Oculoplastics, or oculoplastic surgery, and includes a wide variety of surgical procedures that deal with the orbit (eye socket eyelids tear ducts and the face

Overlap areas between Ophthalmology and Optometry include:

• Both professions treat patients with medications and optical aids
• Both professions perform testing for common ocular problems affecting children (i. e. , amblyopia and strabismus) and the adult population (cataract, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy). Amblyopia, otherwise known as lazy eye, is a disorder of the Visual system that is characterized by poor or indistinct vision in an eye that Strabismus (from Greek: στραβισμός strabismos, from στραβίζειν strabizein "to squint" from στραβός strabos A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity Glaucoma is a group of diseases of the Optic nerve involving loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern of optic neuropathy. Diabetic retinopathy is Retinopathy (damage to the Retina) caused by complications of Diabetes mellitus, which can eventually lead to Blindness Optometrists usually refer to ophthalmologists for surgical assessment and treatment of ocular diseases if required.
• Ophthalmologists may refer patients with poor vision to optometrists specializing in low vision for optical aids or low vision rehabilitation. Low vision is a subspecialty within the professions of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Opticianry dealing with individuals who have less than normal vision Both ophthalmologists and optometrists are trained in refraction for glasses and contact lenses. Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed.

Sub-specialities

Ophthalmology includes sub-specialities which deal either with certain diseases or diseases of certain parts of the eye. The inferior rectus muscle is a Muscle in the orbit. Actions It depresses, adducts, Rotates laterally, and extorts Some of them are:

• Anterior segment surgery
• Cataract - not considered a subspecialty per se, since most general ophthalmologists do surgery for this. The anterior segment is the front third of the Eye that includes the structures in front of the Vitreous humour: the Cornea, iris, Ciliary A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity
• Cornea, ocular surface, and external disease

• Glaucoma
• Neuro-ophthalmology
• Ocular oncology
• Oculoplastics & Orbit surgery
• Ophthalmic pathology
• Pediatric ophthalmology/Strabismus (squint)
• Refractive surgery
• Medical retina, deals with treatment of retinal problems conservatively. The cornea is the transparent front part of the Eye that covers the iris, Pupil, and Anterior chamber. Glaucoma is a group of diseases of the Optic nerve involving loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern of optic neuropathy. Neuro-ophthalmology is the subspecialty of both Neurology and Ophthalmology concerning visual problems that are related to the Nervous system Ocular oncology is the branch of Medicine dealing with Tumors relating to the Eye and its Adnexa. Oculoplastics, or oculoplastic surgery, and includes a wide variety of surgical procedures that deal with the orbit (eye socket eyelids tear ducts and the face Ophthalmic pathology is the subspecialty of Surgical pathology which deals with the Diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic Pediatric ophthalmology is a sub-speciality of Ophthalmology concerned with Eye diseases and vision care in children Strabismus (from Greek: στραβισμός strabismos, from στραβίζειν strabizein "to squint" from στραβός strabos Refractive eye surgery is any Eye surgery used to improve the refractive state of the Eye and decrease or eliminate dependency on Glasses or Contact
• Vitreoretinal Surgery, deals with surgical management of retinal and posterio segment diseases and disorders. Medical retina and vitreoretinal surgery sometimes together called posterior segment subspecialisation. The posterior segment is the back two-thirds of the Eye that includes the Anterior hyaloid membrane and all of the optical structures behind it the Vitreous
• Uveitis/Immunology

Ophthalmic surgery

Notable ophthalmologists

Revisions and sourced additions are welcome.

See also: :Category:Ophthalmologists

Pre-18th century

• Marie Colinet, wife of Wilhelm Fabry, employs a magnet for removing a foreign body from the eye, 1627. Marie Colinet (Fabry (ca 1560 - ca 1640 the daughter of a Swiss printer was born in Geneva, Switzerland. Wilhelm Fabry (also William Fabry Guilelmus Fabricius Hildanus or Fabricius von Hilden ( June 25, 1560 in Hilden − February 15,

18th-19th century

• Sir William Adams (UK) Founder of Exeter's West of England Eye Infirmary. Sir William Adams (1783–1827 also known as Sir William Rawson after 1825 Exeter ( (IPA ˈeksɪtər is a city, district and County town of Devon, England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland
• Carl Ferdinand von Arlt (1812-1887), the elder (Austrian) proved that myopia is largely due to an excessive axial length, published influential textbooks on eye disease, and ran annual eye clinics in needy areas long before the concept of volunteer eye camps became popular. Carl Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt ( April 18, 1812 - March 7, 1887) was an Austrian Ophthalmologist who was born in Obergraupen His name is still attached to some disease signs, eg, von Arlt's line in trachoma. His son Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt, the younger, was also an ophthalmologist.
• Jacques Daviel (France) claimed to be the 'father' of modern cataract surgery in that he performed extracapsular extraction instead of needling the cataract or pushing it back into the vitreous. Jacques Daviel ( 11 August 1696 - 30 September 1762) was a French Ophthalmologist credited with originating the first significant advance A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity It is said that he carried out the technique on 206 patients in 1752-3, out of which 182 were reported to be successful. These figures are not very credible, given the total lack of both anaesthesia and aseptic technique at that time.
• Frans Cornelis Donders (1818-1889) (Dutch) published pioneering analyses of ocular biomechanics, intraocular pressure, glaucoma, and physiological optics. Franciscus Cornelis Donders ( Tilburg, May 27, 1818 - Utrecht, March 24, 1889) was a Dutch Ophthalmologist Made possible the prescribing of combinations of spherical and cylindrical lenses to treat astigmatism.
• Albrecht von Graefe (1828-1870) (Germany) Along with Helmholtz and Donders, one of the 'founding fathers' of ophthalmology as a specialty. Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Albrecht von Graefe (or Gräfe; May 22, 1828 &ndash July 20, 1870) was a pioneering German A brilliant clinician and charismatic teacher who had an international influence on the development of ophthalmology. A pioneer in mapping visual field defects and diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma. Introduced a cataract extraction technique that remained the standard for over 100 years, and many other important surgical techniques such as iridectomy. Rationalised the use of many ophthalmically important drugs, including mydriatics & miotics. The founder of the one of the earliest ophthalmic societies (German Ophthalmological Society, 1857) and one of the earliest ophthalmic journals (Graefe's Archives of Ophthalmology). The most important ophthalmologist of the nineteenth century.
• Allvar Gullstrand (Sweden), Nobel Prize winner in 1911 for his research on the eye as a light-refracting apparatus. Allvar Gullstrand ( June 5 1862 in Landskrona &ndash July 28 1930 in Stockholm) was a Swedish Ophthalmologist The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature Described the schematic eye a mathematical model of the human eye based on his measurements known as the optical constants of the eye. Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain His measurements are still used today.
• Hermann von Helmholtz, great German polymath, invented the ophthalmoscope (1851) and published important work on physiological optics, including colour vision (1850s).
• Hermann Snellen (Netherlands) introduced the Snellen chart to study visual acuity. Herman Snellen ( February 19, 1834, Zeist - January 18, 1908) was a Dutch Ophthalmologist who introduced the Snellen A Snellen chart is an Eye chart used by Eye care professionals and others to measure Visual acuity. Eye examination Visual acuity (VA is acuteness or clearness of vision, especially form vision which is dependent on the sharpness of the retinal focus within the

20th-21st century

• J. Donald M. Gass (1928-2005) Dr. Gass received his undergraduate and medical (1957) degrees from Vanderbilt University where in medical school. Vanderbilt University is a private, Nonsectarian, Coeducational Research University in Nashville, Tennessee, In 1963, he joined the faculty of the newly formed Bascom Palmer Eye Institute of the University of Miami School of Medicine and pursued an impressive career spanning 3 decades. The University of Miami (also known as Miami of Florida, UM, or just The U) is a private non-sectarian University founded in 1925 Dr. Gass was known as a pioneer in modern ophthalmology and was widely recognized as the Father of Macular Diseases in the world. In 1999, he was named by his peers as one of the top ten most influential ophthalmologists of the 20th century^[5]. Dr. Gass authored several major reference books on macular diseases and intraocular tumors, authoring 12 book chapters and over 270 articles in peer-reviewed journals, many of which are thought to be landmark contributions.
• Jules Stein (1896-1981) born in Chicago, attended Rush Medical College, and moved to Los Angeles after training in ophthalmology. Dr Jules C Stein ( April 26 1896 &ndash April 29 1981) was an American musician physician and business leader Rush Medical College (often referred to simply as "Rush" is the Medical school of Rush University, a private university in Chicago, Instead of medicine, his career turned to the music industry. He founded the Music Corporation of America, or MCA Records, which went on to become the largest Hollywood media conglomerate of its time. MCA Inc (or Music Corporation of America) was an American Corporation in the music and television businesses MCA Records was an American -based record company owned by MCA Inc Dr. Stein had a philanthropic role in the specialty of ophthalmology, encouraging the formation of the National Eye Institute (NEI), substantially created the Research to Prevent Blindness organization, that went on to provide large funds to independent ophthalmology academic departments to allow for the construction of eye institutes across the United States. The National Eye Institute (NEI is one of the US National Institutes of Health that was established in 1968. His most famous contribution was to fund the UCLA Jules Stein Eye Institute in Los Angeles, which is recognized as one of the top 5 eye hospitals in the United states, as well as one of the top 5 ophthalmology programs in the United States. The University of California Los Angeles (generally known as UCLA) is a public research university located in Westwood Los Angeles, California, United The Jules Stein Eye Institute, founded by MCA founder Jules Stein functions as the department of ophthalmology for the UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine
• William Horatio Bates (1860-1931) (USA) Creator of the unorthodox Bates Method, credited for being the founder of the Natural Vision Improvement movement. William Horatio Bates ( December 23, 1860 - July 10, 1931) was an American Physician who practiced ophthalmology and developed what The Bates method for "better eyesight" was developed by eye-care physician William Horatio Bates, M
• Vladimir Petrovich Filatov (Ukraine) (1875-1956) His contributions to the medical world include the tube flap grafting method, corneal transplantation and preservation of grafts from cadaver eyes and tissue therapy. Vladimir Petrovich Filatov (Владимир Филaтoв Вoлoдимир Філaтoв (15 27 February 1875 Saransk, Russian Empire - 30 October He founded The Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases & Tissue Therapy, Odessa, one of the leading eye care institutes in the world. The Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases & Tissue Therapy is a large Ophthalmology (eye clinic at Frantsuzsky Boulevard 49/51 in Odessa, Ukraine.
• Ignacio Barraquer (Spain, 1884-1965),invented in 1917 the first motorized vacuum instrument (erisophake) for intracapsular cataract extraction. Ignacio Barraquer ( March 25, 1884 - May 13, 1965) was a Spanish Ophthalmologist known for his contributions to the advancement A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity Founder of the Barraquer Clinic (1941) and the Barraquer Institute (1947) in Barcelona, Spain.
• Tsutomu Sato (Japan), pioneer in incisional refractive surgery, including techniques for astigmatism and the invention of radial keratotomyfor myopia. Radial keratotomy (RK is a refractive surgical procedure to correct Myopia.
• Jules Gonin (Switzerland)"father of retinal detachment surgery"
• Sir Harold Ridley (UK) may have been the first to successfully implant an artificial intraocular lens 1949, after observing that plastic fragments in the eyes of wartime pilots were well tolerated. Jules Gonin ( August 10, 1870 - May 1935 was a Professor of Ophthalmology in Lausanne (Switzerland who pioneered the procedure of Ignipuncture Sir Nicholas Harold Lloyd Ridley ( 10 July 1906, Kibworth Harcourt, Leicestershire &ndash 25 May 2001, Salisbury He fought for decades against strong reactionary opinions to have the concept accepted as feasible and useful.
• Charles Schepens (Belgium), "father of modern retinal surgery", developer of the Schepens indirect binocular ophthalmoscope whilst at Moorfields Eye Hospital, founder of the Schepens Eye Research Institute, Boston, USA. Charles L Schepens ( March 13, 1912 - March 28, 2006) was an influential American Ophthalmologist, regarded by many This premier research institute is associated with Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary.
• Marshall M. Parks, "father of pediatric ophthalmology". Marshall Miller Parks ( 1918 - July 25, 2005) was an American Ophthalmologist known to many as "the father of Pediatric ophthalmology
• José Ignacio Barraquer (Spain, 1916-1998), "father of modern refractive surgery", developed in the 1960s lamellar techniques including keratomileusis and keratophakia, as well as the first microkeratome and corneal microlathe. José Ignacio Barraquer ( January 24, 1916; Barcelona Spain – February 13, 1998; Bogotá Colombia) was an Ophthalmologist Keratomileusis is the surgical improvement of the refractive state of the Cornea performed by lifting up the front surface of the Eye by forming A microkeratome is a precision surgical instrument with an oscillating blade designed for creating the corneal flap in LASIK or ALK surgery A micro lathe (also styled micro-lathe or microlathe) is a Machine tool used for the complex shaping of Metal and other Solid
• Tadeusz Krwawicz (Poland), developed in 1961 the first cryoprobe for intracapsular cataract extraction. Tadeusz Krwawicz ( January 15 1910 - August 17 1988) was a Polish pioneer in medicine A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity
• Svyatoslav Fyodorov (Russia) popularizer of radial keratotomy
• Charles Kelman (United States) developed the ultrasound and mechanized irrigation/aspiration system for phacoemulsification, first allowing cataract extraction through a small incision. Svyatoslav Nikolayevich Fyodorov ( Russian: Святослав Николаевич Фёдоров; born August 8, 1927 – June Radial keratotomy (RK is a refractive surgical procedure to correct Myopia. Charles D Kelman ( May 23, 1930 &ndash June 1, 2004) was an Ophthalmologist and a pioneer in Cataract surgery. Phacoemulsification refers to modern Cataract surgery in which the Eye 's internal lens is emulsified with an ultrasonic handpiece and aspirated
• Ioannis Pallikaris (Greece), performed the first laser assisted intrastromal keratomileusis or LASIK surgery. Pallikaris Ioannis G (Παλλήκαρης Ιωάννης in Greek is a Greek Ophthalmologist who in 1989 performed the first LASIK procedure on a human Eye Keratomileusis is the surgical improvement of the refractive state of the Cornea performed by lifting up the front surface of the Eye by forming LASIK or Lasik ( Laser -assisted In situ Keratomileusis) is a type
• Fred Hollows (New Zealand/Australia) pioneered programs in Nepal, Eritrea, and Vietnam, and among Australian aborigines, including the establishment of cheap laboratory production of intraocular lenses in Nepal and Eritrea. Frederick (Fred Cossom Hollows, AC (born April 9 1929 in Dunedin, New Zealand &ndash died February 10 1993 Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially
• Ian Constable (Australia) founded the Lions Eye Institute in Perth, Western Australia, the largest eye research institute in the southern hemisphere and home to 10 ophthalmologists. Ian Jeffrey Constable AO is an Australian Ophthalmologist and the founder and director of the Lions Eye Institute in Perth Western Australia The Lions Eye Institute (LEI in Perth Western Australia, is the largest eye research institute in the southern hemisphere Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia. Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent.
• L. L. Zamenhof, Poland - Creator of the language Esperanto. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof (ˈzɑːmɨnhɒf in English born Eliezer Samenhof December 15 1859 &ndash April 14 1917 was an ophthalmologist, Philologist is by far the most widely spoken constructed International auxiliary language in the world
• Bashar al-Assad is the Syrian President. Dr Bashar al-Assad (بشار الأسد) (born 11 September, 1965) is the President of the Syrian Arab Republic, Regional Secretary He did his ophthalmology residency in a London hospital.
• Syed Modasser Ali is an ophthalmic surgeon from Bangladesh who used to be the Director-General of Health Services for the Bangladesh government. Syed Modasser Ali FRCS, FRCOpth is an ophthalmic surgeon from Bangladesh and a former Executive Board member ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially He is the authour of the first book on Community Ophthalmology (public eye health). Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations
• Hal Clark Purcell Performed the first surgery for the replacement of a inter-ocular lens.

See also

• Eye
• Eye examination
• Eye care professional
• History of eye colors
• Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
• Optometry
• Optics
• Orthoptics
• Pediatric ophthalmology
• Prentice position

External links

• American Academy of Ophthalmology
• Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology
• American Society of Cataract & Refractive Surgery
• European Society of Cataract & Refractive Surgery
• European Vitreo-Retinal Society
• Royal College of Ophthalmologists
• American Board of Eye Surgeons
• American Board of Ophthalmology
• Indian Journal of Ophthalmology
• All India Ophthalmological Society
• Delhi Ophthalmological Society
• Ophthalmological Society of Bangladesh
• The David G. Cogan Ophthalmic Pathology Collection
• Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh
• Canadian Ophthalmological Society
• Daily Ophthalmology News
• Web Sight MD
• SEE-KID: Computer-assisted Simulation and Treatment of Eye Motility Disorders
• Lions Eye Institute, Perth, Western Australia
• Iris Pharma Pre-clinical and clinical research in ophthalmology
• OphthalmologyWeb: News, Editorial, Forums and Education

References

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