Olive
Olea europaea, Dead Sea, Jordan
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Lamiales Family: Oleaceae Genus: Olea Species: O. The Dead Sea (יָם הַ‏‏מֶ‏ּ‏לַ‏ח, "Sea of Salt"البَحْر المَيّت, "Dead Sea" is a salt lake between Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Magnoliopsida is the Botanical name for a class of Flowering plants By definition the class will include the family Magnoliaceae, but its The order Lamiales is a Taxon in the asterid group of dicotyledonous Flowering plants. The Oleaceae, or olive family, is a Plant family containing 24 extant genera and around 600 Species of Mesophytic Olea is a Genus of about 20 species in the family Oleaceae, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of southern Europe, Africa europaea
Binomial name
Olea europaea L.

The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean region, from Lebanon, Syria and the maritime parts of Asia Minor and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or In Biological classification, family ( Latin The Oleaceae, or olive family, is a Plant family containing 24 extant genera and around 600 Species of Mesophytic The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Its fruit, the olive, is of major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil. The Olive is the Fruit of the Olive tree (Olea europaea and is a major component of the Agriculture and Gastronomy of many countries Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees

Contents 1 Description 2 History 3 Old olive trees 4 Cultivation and uses 4.1 Subspecies 4.2 Cultivars 4.3 Growth and propagation 4.4 Fruit harvest and processing 4.5 Traditional fermentation 5 Pests and diseases 6 Economy 6.1 Production 7 Olive as an invasive species 8 References 9 See also 10 External links

Description

The Olive tree is an evergreen tree or shrub native to the Mediterranean, Asia and parts of Africa. In Botany, an Evergreen plant is a plant having leaves all year round A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or A shrub or Bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of Woody plant, distinguished from a Tree It is short and squat, and rarely exceeds 8–15 meters in height. The silvery green leaves are oblong in shape, measuring 4–10 cm long and 1–3 cm wide. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. The trunk is typically gnarled and twisted.

The small white flowers, with four-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens and bifid stigma, are borne generally on the last year's wood, in racemes springing from the axils of the leaves. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also A sepal (from Latin separatus "separate" + petalum "petal" is a part of the flower of Angiosperms or flower plants A petal (from Ancient Greek petalon "leaf" "thin plate" regarded as a highly modified leaf is one member or part of the corolla The stamen ( Plural stamina or stamens, from Latin stamen meaning "thread of the warp " is the male A gynoecium (from Ancient Greek gyne, "woman" is the Female reproductive part of a Flower. A raceme is a type of Inflorescence that is unbranched and indeterminate and bears pedicellate Flowers &mdash flowers having short In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis.

The fruit is a small drupe 1–2. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. In Botany, a drupe is a Fruit in which an outer fleshy part ( Exocarp, or skin and Mesocarp, or flesh surrounds a shell (the pit 5 cm long, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested at the green stage or left to ripen to a rich purple colour (black olive). Canned black olives may contain chemicals that turn them black artificially.

History

See also: Olive oil#History

The olive is one of the plants most cited in recorded literature. Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock. The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs ^[1] The Roman poet, Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace Endive (ˈɛndiv or /ˈɛndɪv/ Cichorium endivia is a Leaf vegetable belonging to the daisy family. Althaea is a Genus of 6-12 species of perennial herbs including the marshmallow plant whence the confection got its name native "^[2] Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods. James Burnett Lord Monboddo ( October 25, 1714 - May 26, 1799) was a Scottish Judge, scholar of language evolution and ^[3]

The leafy branches of the olive tree, olive leaf as a symbol of abundance, glory and peace, were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody war. Olive leaf is the leaf of the Olive tree ( Olea europaea) While Olive oil is well known for its flavor and health benefits the leaf has been used As emblems of benediction and purification, they were also ritually offered to deities and powerful figures: some were even found in Tutankhamen's tomb.

Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic Games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. Today it is still used in many religious ceremonies.

According to Greek mythology the Olive tree, her gift to the people of Attica, won Athena the patronage of the city of Athens over Poseidon^[4]. Attica (Αττική Attikí;) is a periphery (subdivision in Greece, containing Athens, the capital of Greece ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's In Greek mythology, Poseidon ( Greek:; Latin: Neptūnus) was the god of the Sea and as "Earth-Shaker"

Old olive trees

Pliny the Elder told of a sacred Greek olive tree that was 1600 years old. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Several trees in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words "gat shemanim" or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the time of Jesus. Gethsemane ( Greek ΓεσΘημανι Gesthēmani ' Hebrew: גת שמנים, from Aramaic גת שמנא Gat Šmānê, lit Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) ^[5] Some Italian olive trees are believed to date back to Roman times, although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult.

However, the age of an olive tree in Crete, claimed to be over 2,000 years old, has been determined on the basis of tree ring analysis. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Dendrochronology (from Greek grc δένδρον dendron, "tree" grc χρόνος khronos, "time" and grc -λογία ^[6] Another, on the island of Brijuni (Brioni), Istria in Croatia, a well-known olive tree has been calculated to be about 1,600 years old. This article deals with Croatian islands For the Italian clothing company see Brioni. This article is about a geographical region bordering the Adriatic Sea Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between It still gives fruit (about 30 kg per year), which is made into top quality olive oil. ^[7]

The olive tree is frequently mentioned in Religious texts such as the Bible, Book of Mormon, the Qur'an, and is one of the symbols of the Greek goddess Athena. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin The Book of Mormon is a Sacred text of the churches in the Latter Day Saint movement. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN.

As far back as 3000BC olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan Civilization. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. ^[8]

A tree located in Santu Baltolu di Carana in Sardinia, Italy, named with respect as the Ozzastru by the inhabitants of the region, is claimed to be 3000 to 4000 years old according to different studies. Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest In the same natural garden, a few other millenary trees can be admired.

Cultivation and uses

For more details on this topic, see olive (fruit). The Olive is the Fruit of the Olive tree (Olea europaea and is a major component of the Agriculture and Gastronomy of many countries

The olive tree has been cultivated since ancient times as a source of olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf and olives for consumption. Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees Olive leaf is the leaf of the Olive tree ( Olea europaea) While Olive oil is well known for its flavor and health benefits the leaf has been used The naturally bitter fruit is typically subjected to fermentation or cured with lye or brine to make it more palatable. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions Lye is a Corrosive alkaline substance commonly Sodium hydroxide (NaOH Brine (lat saltus) is Water saturated or nearly saturated with Salt (NaCl

Green olives and black olives are washed thoroughly in water to remove oleuropein, a bitter carbohydrate. Oleuropein is a chemical compound found in Olive leaf from the Olive tree (and leaves of privet together with other closely related compounds such as 10-hydroxyoleuropein Sometimes they are also soaked in a solution of food grade sodium hydroxide in order to accelerate the process. Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature

Green olives are allowed to ferment before being packed in a brine solution. American black ("California") olives are not fermented, which is why they taste milder than green olives.

It is not known when olives were first cultivated for harvest. Among the earliest evidence for the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic Period archaeological site of Teleilat Ghassul in what is today modern Jordan. The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern

The plant and its products are frequently referred to in the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Qur'an, and by the earliest recorded poets. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin The Book of Mormon is a Sacred text of the churches in the Latter Day Saint movement. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Farmers in ancient times believed olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a short distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic 6 km) as the limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, it has long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are milder. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra

Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climate, such as South Africa, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, Mediterranean Basin, Israel, Palestinian Territories and California. A Mediterranean climate is one that resembles the Climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, which includes over half of the area with this climate type world-wide The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Name There are differences of opinion as to what the Palestinian territories should be called California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Considerable research has been accumulated supporting the health benefits of consuming olives, olive leaf and olive oil (see external links below for research results). Olive leaf is the leaf of the Olive tree ( Olea europaea) While Olive oil is well known for its flavor and health benefits the leaf has been used

The olive tree provides leaves, fruit and oil. Olive leaves are used in medicinal teas.

Subspecies

There are at least five natural subspecies distributed over a wide range:

• Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Europes)
• Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (from Eritrea and Ethiopia south throughout East Africa, also in Iran to China)
• Olea europaea subsp. guanchica (Canaries)
• Olea europaea subsp. maroccana (Morocco)
• Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger,India)

Cultivars

Small Olive Tree

Large Olive Tree

Olive Tree Leaves

Olive Tree Trunk

Olive Flowers

A young olive plant, germinated from a seed

Monumental tree in Apulia Region - Southern Italy

There are thousands of cultivars of the olive. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar In Italy alone at least three hundred cultivars have been enumerated, but only a few are grown to a large extent. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The main Italian cultivars are 'Leccino', 'Frantoio' and 'Carolea'. None of these can be safely identified with ancient descriptions, though it is not unlikely that some of the narrow-leaved cultivars most esteemed may be descendants of the Licinian olive. The Iberian olives are usually cured and eaten, often after being pitted, stuffed (with pickled pimento, onion, or other garnishes) and jarred in fresh brine. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Pimento is sometimes a synonym for Allspice. The Pimento, Pimiento, or Cherry Pepper is a variety of large red heart-shaped Organicsalsajpg||thumb|right|Onions used in salsa.]]Cooked onions in frying pan

Since many cultivars are self sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one, for example, 'Frantoio' and 'Leccino'. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities such as resistance to disease, quick growth and larger or more consistent crops.

Some particularly important cultivars of olive include:

• 'Manzanillo', a large, rounded-oval fruit, with purple-green skin. Rich taste and thick pulp. A prolific bearer, grown around the world.
• 'Frantoio' and 'Leccino'. These cultivars are the principal participants in Italian olive oils from Tuscany. Leccino has a mild sweet flavour while Frantoio is fruity with a stronger aftertaste. Due to their highly valued flavour, these cultivars have been migrated and are now grown in other countries.
• 'Arbequina' is a small, brown olive grown in Catalonia, Spain. Arbequina olives are small brown Olives mostly grown in Catalonia, but also in Aragon, Andalusia and even Argentina. Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. As well as being used as a table olive, its oil is highly valued.
• 'Empeltre' is a medium sized, black olive grown in Spain. They are used both as a table olive and to produce a high quality olive oil.
• 'Kalamata' is a large, black olive, named after the city of Kalamata, Greece, used as a table olive. Kalamata (Καλαμάτα Kalamáta, formerly Καλάμαι Kalámai) is the second-largest city of the Peloponnese in southern Greece Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία These olives are of a smooth and meatlike taste. They are usually preserved in vinegar and / or olive oil. Kalamata olives enjoy PDO (Protected designation of origin) status. ^[9]
• 'Koroneiki' originates from the southern Peloponese, around Kalamata and Mani in Greece. The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus ( Greek: Πελοπόννησος Pelopónnisos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large Peninsula Kalamata (Καλαμάτα Kalamáta, formerly Καλάμαι Kalámai) is the second-largest city of the Peloponnese in southern Greece The Mani Peninsula ( Μάνη in Greek) also long known as Maina or Maïna, is a region in Greece. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία This small olive, though difficult to cultivate, has a high oil yield and produces olive oil of exceptional quality. Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees
• 'Pecholine' or 'picholine' originated in the south of France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. It is green, medium size, and elongated. Their flavour is mild and nutty.
• 'Lucques' originated in the south of France (Aude département). Aude ( Occitan: Aude) is a department in south-central France named after the Aude River. They are green, of a large size, and elongated. The stone has an arcuated shape. Their flavour is mild and nutty.
• 'Souri' (Syrian) originated in Lebanon and is widespread in the Levant. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the It has a high oil yield and exceptionally aromatic flavour.
• 'Nabali' is a Palestinian cultivar^[10] also known locally as 'Baladi', which along with 'Souri' and 'Malissi' are considered to produce among the highest quality olive oil in the world. Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn ^[11]
• 'Barnea' is a modern cultivar bred in Israel to be disease resistant and to produce a generous crop. It is used both for oil and for table olives. The oil has a strong flavour with a hint of green leaf. Barnea is widely grown in Israel and in the southern hemisphere, particularly in Australia and New Zealand.
• 'Maalot'(Hebrew for merits) is another modern Israeli, disease-resistant, Eastern Mediterranean cultivar derived from the North African 'Chemlali' cultivar. The olive is medium sized, round, has a fruity flavour and is used almost exclusively for oil production.
• 'Mission' originated on the California Missions and is now grown throughout the state. They are black and generally used for table consumption.

Growth and propagation

Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. Lime is a general term for various naturally occurring Minerals and materials derived from them in which Carbonates Oxides and Hydroxides of Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 They tolerate drought well, thanks to their sturdy and extensive root system. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN. Olive trees can be exceptionally long-lived, up to several centuries, and can remain productive for as long, provided they are pruned correctly and regularly.

The olive tree grows very slowly, but over many years the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 m in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 m in height, and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning. The yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers.

The olive is propagated in various ways, but cuttings or layers are generally preferred; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; it must be budded or grafted onto other specimens to do well (Lewington and Parker, 114). Budding (also called burgeoning) is the formation of a new Organism by the protrusion of part of another organism Grafting is a method of asexual Plant propagation widely used in Agriculture and Horticulture where the tissues of one Plant are encouraged to Branches of various thickness are cut into lengths of about 1 m and, planted deeply in manured ground, soon vegetate; shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches, when, covered with a few centimetres of soil, they rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. Manure is Organic matter used as Organic fertilizer in Agriculture. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild form is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted beneath the surface, where they grow readily, their buds soon forming a vigorous shoot.

Occasionally the larger boughs are marched, and young trees thus soon obtained. The olive is also sometimes raised from seed, the oily pericarp being first softened by slight rotting, or soaking in hot water or in an alkaline solution, to facilitate germination. In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal Germination is the process whereby growth emerges from a period of dormancy

Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Languedoc and Provence, the trees are regularly pruned. Languedoc ( in French Lengadòc in Occitan) is a former Province of France, now continued in the modern-day ''régions'' of Languedoc-Roussillon Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit. The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized. The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear well two years in succession, and in many instances a large harvest can only be reckoned upon every sixth or seventh season.

A calcareous soil, however dry or poor, seems best adapted to its healthy development, though the tree will grow in any light soil, and even on clay if well drained; but, as remarked by Pliny, the plant is more liable to disease on rich soils, and the oil is inferior to the produce of the poorer and more rocky ground. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author

In general, a temperature below 14 °F (-10 °C) may cause considerable injury to a mature tree, but (with the exception of juvenile trees) a temperature of 16 °F (-9 °C) will normally cause no harm.

Fruit harvest and processing

Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Another method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist. Using olives found lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil. In southern Europe the olive harvest is in the winter months, continuing for several weeks, but the time varies in each country, and also with the season and the kinds cultivated. A device called the oli-net wraps around the trunk of the tree and opens to form an umbrella like catcher to catch fruit that is picked. Workers can then harvest the fruit without the weight of the load around their neck. Another device, the oliviera, is an electronic tool that connects to a battery. The oliviera has large tongs that are spun around quickly, removing fruit from the tree. This method is used for olive oil variety olives. Table olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must take caution not to damage the fruit in any way. Picking baskets that hang around the worker's neck are used.

The amount of oil contained in the fruit differs greatly in the various cultivars; the pericarp is usually 60–70% oil. A Fruit in Botany refers to a mature ovary. In fleshy fruits the outer often edible layer is the pericarp, which is the tissue that develops Typical yields are 1. 5-2. 2 kg of oil per tree per year. ^[12]

Traditional fermentation

Olives freshly picked from the tree contain phenolic compounds and a unique glycoside, oleuropein, which makes the fruit unpalatable for immediate consumption. Phenol, is a toxic colourless Crystalline Solid with a sweet tarry odor commonly referred to as a "hospital smell" There are many ways of processing olives for table use. Traditional methods use the natural microflora on the fruit and procedures which select for those that bring about fermentation of the fruit. Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions This fermentation leads to three important outcomes: the leaching out and breakdown of oleuropein and phenolic compounds; the creation of lactic acid, which is a natural preservative; and a complex of flavoursome fermentation products. Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role The result is a product which will store with or without refrigeration.

One basic fermentation method is to get food grade containers, which may include plastic containers from companies which trade in olives and preserved vine leaves. Many bakeries also recycle food grade plastic containers which are well sized for olive fermentation; they are 10 to 20 litres in capacity. Freshly picked olives are often sold at markets in 10 kg trays. Olives should be selected for their firmness if green and general good condition. Olives can be used green, ripe green (which is a yellower shade of green, or green with hints of color), through to full purple black ripeness. The olives are soaked in water to wash them, and drained. 7 litres (which is 7 kg) of room temperature water is added to the fermentation container, and 800 g of sea salt, and one cup (300g) of white vinegar (white wine or cider vinegar). The salt is dissolved to create a 10% solution (the 800 g of salt is in an 8 kg mixture of salt and water and vinegar). Each olive is given a single deep slit with a small knife (if small), or up to three slits per fruit (if large, eg 60 fruit per kg). If 10 kg of olives are added to the 10% salt solution, the ultimate salinity after some weeks will be around 5 to 6% once the water in the olives moves into solution and the salt moves into the olives. The olives are weighed down with an inert object such as a plate so they are fully immersed and lightly sealed in their container. The light sealing is to allow the gases of fermentation to escape. It is also possible to make a plastic bag partially filled with water, and lay this over the top as a venting lid which also provides a good seal. The exclusion of oxygen is useful but not as critical as when grapes are fermented to produce wine. The olives can be tasted at any time as the bitter compounds are not poisonous, and oleuropein is a useful antioxidant in the human diet. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules

The olives are edible within 2 weeks to a month, but can be left to cure for up to three months. Green olives will usually be firmer in texture after curing than black olives. Olives can be flavored by soaking them in various marinades, or removing the pit and stuffing them. Herbs, spices, olive oil, feta, capsicum (pimento), chili, lemon zest, lemon juice, garlic cloves, wine, vinegar, juniper berries, and anchovies are popular flavorings. Sometimes the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation. This method of curing adds a slightly bitter taste.

Pests and diseases

A fungus Cycloconium oleaginum can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Pseudomonas savastanoi is a Gram-negative Plant pathogenic Bacterium that infects a variety of Plants It was once considered oleae^[13] induces tumour growth in the shoots, and certain lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves and flowers, while the main damage is made by the olive-fly attacks to the fruit. Lepidoptera is an order of Insect that includes Moths and butterflies. In France and north-central Italy olives suffer occasionally from frost. Gales and long-continued rains during the gathering season also cause damage. Another pest which spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug. Black scale is a small black beetle that resembles a small black spot. Beetles are the group of Insects with the largest number of known Species. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the quality of the fruit. The main predator of black scale is wasps. A wasp is any Insect of the order Hymenoptera and suborder Apocrita that is neither a Bee nor Ant. The curculio beetle eats the edges of leaves, leaving saw tooth damage. ^[14]

Rabbits are known to eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young trees. If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of the tree it may have little chance of survival.

Economy

Production

Olive is the most extensively cultivated fruit crop in the world. ^[15] Its cultivation areas has tripled in the past 44 years, passing from 2. 6 to 8. 5 million of hectares.

The first ten countries of production, as per FAO, all located in the Mediterranean region, represent together 95% of the world production of olives.

Main countries of production (Year 2003)

Rank	Country/Region	Production (in tons)	Cultivated area (in hectares)	Yield (q/Ha)
—	World	17,317,089	8,597,064	20. Units of mass There are three similar units of Mass called the ton: Long ton (simply ton in countries such as the United Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, 1
1	Spain	6,160,100	2,400,000	25. 7
2	Italy	3,149,830	1,140,685	27. 6
3	Greece	2,400,000	765,000	31. 4
4	Turkey	1,800,000	594,000	30. 3
5	Syria	998,988	498,981	20. 0
6	Tunisia	500,000	1,500,000	3. 3
7	Morocco	470,000	550,000	8. 5
8	Egypt	318,339	49,888	63. 8
9	Algeria	300,000	178,000	16. 9
10	Portugal	280,000	430,000	6. 5
11	Lebanon	180,000	230,000	4. 5

Olive as an invasive species

Since its first domestication, Olea europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by feral plants. ^[16]

In some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, most notably South Australia, the Olive has become a major woody weed that displaces native vegetation. South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country WEED (1390 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Spanish format Its seeds are spread by the introduced Red Fox and by many bird species including the European Starling and the native Emu into woodlands where they germinate and eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees. The Red Fox ( Vulpes vulpes) is a Mammal of the order Carnivora. The European Starling, Common Starling or just Starling, Sturnus vulgaris, is a Passerine Bird in the family The Emu ( Dromaius novaehollandiae, is the largest Bird native to Australia and the only extant member of the Genus ^[17]

References

See also

• Oil-tree
• Olive (fruit)
• Phytonutrient
• Polyphenol antioxidant
• Olive leaf

External links

• Unusual Olivesby Elena Fotiadi, Epikouria Magazine, Spring/Summer 2006
• 10+1 Things you may not know about Olive Oil by Ellen Gooch, Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Winter 2005
• The Olive Tree World
• Olive germplasm
• Plants for a Future: Olea europaea
• International Olive Oil Council Includes studies on health benefits
• The history and gastronomy of the olive and olive oil in Spain
• Greek Olives and Olive Oil: History, cultivation, production and marketing
• How to pickle olives

Oil-tree - (Isa 4119 RV marg "oleaster" Heb 'etz shemen rendered " Olive tree " in 1 Kings 623 31 32 33 (R The Olive is the Fruit of the Olive tree (Olea europaea and is a major component of the Agriculture and Gastronomy of many countries Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits A polyphenol antioxidant is a type of Antioxidant containing a Polyphenolic substructure Olive leaf is the leaf of the Olive tree ( Olea europaea) While Olive oil is well known for its flavor and health benefits the leaf has been used

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