Oceanography (from the greek words Ωκεανός meaning Ocean and γράφω meaning to write), also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth Sciences that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. The term thermohaline circulation (THC refers to the part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is thought to be driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. This article is about the body of water For other uses see SEA and Seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. Marine biology is the scientific study of living Organisms in the Ocean or other marine or Brackish bodies of water An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( An ocean current is continuous directed movement of Ocean water. A wave is a disturbance that propagates through Space and Time, usually with transference of Energy. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere In the various subfields of Physics, there exist two common usages of the term flux, both with rigorous mathematical frameworks These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion.

Contents 1 Sub categories 2 History 3 Ocean and atmosphere connections 4 Major oceanographic institutions and programs 5 References 6 See also 6.1 Related disciplines 7 External links 8 Further reading

Sub categories

The study of oceanography is divided into a number of branches:

• Biological oceanography, or marine biology, is the study of the plants, animals and microbes (biota) of the oceans and their ecological interaction;
• Chemical oceanography, or marine chemistry, is the study of the chemistry of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the atmosphere;
• Geological oceanography, or marine geology, is the study of the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics;
• Physical oceanography, or marine physics, studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, waves, internal waves, tides and currents. Marine biology is the scientific study of living Organisms in the Ocean or other marine or Brackish bodies of water Biota is the total collection of Organisms of a geographic region or a time period from local geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Chemical oceanography is the study of the behavior of the Chemical elements within the Earth 's Oceans The ocean is unique in that it contains - in greater Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Marine geology involves Geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and Paleontological investigations of the Ocean floor and coastal Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Physical oceanography is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the Ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters Ocean surface waves are Surface waves that occur on the Free surface of the Ocean. Characteristics A tide is a repeated cycle of sea level changes in the following stages Over several hours the water rises or advances up a beach in the flood An ocean current is continuous directed movement of Ocean water. Of particular interest is the behaviour of sound (acoustical oceanography), light (optical oceanography) and radio waves in the ocean. Acoustical oceanography is the use of Underwater sound to study the Sea, its boundaries and its contents

These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the exact sciences or mathematics and then focus on applying their interdisciplinary knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography. The term exact science refers to fields of Science that are capable of accurate quantitative expression or precise predictions and rigorous methods of testing Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences ^[1]

Oceanology is used in Ocean engineering, involved in the design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbors, and other structures that allow us to use the ocean safely. Ocean engineering is the branch of Engineering concerned with the design analysis and operation planning of systems that operate in an Oceanic environment An oil platform or oil rig is a large structure used to house workers and machinery needed to drill and/or extract oil and Natural gas through wells ^[2]

Oceanographic data management is the discipline ensuring that oceanographic data both past and present are available to researchers.

History

Man began to acquire knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides are recorded by Aristotle and Strabo. Characteristics A tide is a repeated cycle of sea level changes in the following stages Over several hours the water rises or advances up a beach in the flood Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Early modern exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the creatures that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. But when Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who voyaged between 1766 and 1769, and James Cook, who voyaged from 1768 to 1779, carried out their explorations in the South Pacific, information on the oceans themselves formed part of the reports. Louis-Antoine comte de Bougainville ( November 12 1729 Paris - August 31 1811 Paris) was a French navigator and military Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions

James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks about currents in the Atlantic and Indian oceans during the late 18th and at the beginning of 19th century. Major James Rennell FRS ( December 3, 1742 - March 29, 1830) was an English Geographer, Historian The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a paper on reefs and the formation of atolls as a result of the second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831-6. Year 1840 ( MDCCCXL) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life In nautical terminology a reef is a rock, sandbar, or other feature lying beneath the surface of the water (six fathoms or less at low water An atoll (pronounced /ˈætʌl/ is an island of Coral that encircles a Lagoon partially or completely First Voyage On 27 September 1825 Beagle docked at Woolwich for repairs and fitted out for her new duties at a total cost of £5913 Fitzroy published a report in four volumes of the three voyages of the Beagle.

The steep slope beyond the continental shelves was not discovered until 1849. The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each Continent and associated Coastal plain, which is covered during interglacial periods such Matthew Fontaine Maury's Physical Geography of the Sea, 1855 was the first textbook of oceanography. Matthew Fontaine Maury ( January 14, 1806 &ndash February 1, 1873) USN was an American Astronomer, Year 1855 ( MDCCCLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year The first successful laying of transatlantic telegraph cable in August 1858 confirmed the presence of an underwater "telegraphic plateau" mid-ocean ridge. The first transatlantic Telegraph Cable crossed the Atlantic Ocean from Foilhommerum Valentia Island, in western Ireland to A mid-ocean ridge or mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater Mountain range typically having a valley known as a Rift running along its axis formed by

After the middle of the 19th century, scientific societies were processing a flood of new terrestrial botanical and zoological information. European natural historians began to sense the lack of more than anecdotal knowledge of the oceans. In the 19th century Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology. Edward Forbes ( February 12, 1815 – November 18, 1854) was a British naturalist. Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean.

In 1871, under the recommendations of the Royal Society of London, the British government sponsored an expedition to explore world's oceans and conduct scientific investigations. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 With that, oceanography began as a quantifiable science in 1872, when the Scots Charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition (1872–1876). Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Year 1872 ( MDCCCLXXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. Professor Sir Charles Wyville Thomson ( March 5, 1830 &ndash March 10, 1882) was Professor of Zoology Sir John Murray KCB (3 March 1841 – 16 March 1914 was a pioneering Scots-Canadian Oceanographer and Marine biologist. The Challenger Expedition was a scientific expedition that made many discoveries to lay the foundation of Oceanography. The results of this were published in 50 volumes covering biological, physical and geological aspects. 4417 new species were discovered.

Other European and American nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The first purpose built oceanographic ship, the "Albatros" was built in 1882. The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by Sir John Murray and Johan Hjort was at that time the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever, and led to the classic 1912 book The Depths of the Ocean. Sir John Murray KCB (3 March 1841 – 16 March 1914 was a pioneering Scots-Canadian Oceanographer and Marine biologist. Johan Hjort (born 18 February 1869 in Christiania, now Oslo; died 7 October 1948 in Oslo) was a Norwegian

Oceanographic institutes dedicated to the study of oceanography were founded. In the United States, these included the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1892, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 1930, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, and the School of Oceanography at University of Washington. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (sometimes referred to as SIO, Scripps Oceanography or just Scripps) in La Jolla California, is one of the The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI is a private nonprofit research and higher education facility dedicated to the study of all aspects of marine science and engineering and The Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO is a research institution specializing in the Earth sciences and is part of Columbia University. Columbia University is a private University in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. See Washington (disambiguation for other uses The University of Washington, founded in 1861, is a public research University See Washington (disambiguation for other uses The University of Washington, founded in 1861, is a public research University In Britain, there is a major research institution: National Oceanography Centre, Southampton which is the successor to the Institute of Oceanography. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located For the Italian Special Forces Unit also known as NOCS Nucleo Operativo Centrale di Sicurezza The National Oceanography Centre Southampton In Australia, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, known as CMAR, is a leading center. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research (CMAR is one of the currently c In 1921 the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB) was formed in Monaco. Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO was originally established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB For other uses see Monaco (disambiguation Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco ( French: Principauté de Monaco; Monégasque

In 1893 Fridtjof Nansen allowed his ship "Fram" to be frozen in the Arctic ice. Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen (October 10 1861 – May 13 1930 was a Norwegian Explorer, Scientist and Diplomat. As a result he was able to obtain oceanographic data as well as meteorological and astronomical data. The first international organization of oceanography was created in 1902 as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Year 1902 ( MCMII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting For the ICES civil engineering software package see COGO. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES ( Conseil International

The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was made in 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the "Meteor" expedition gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using an echo sounder, surveying the Mid Atlantic Ridge. The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, was discoved by Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen in 1953 while the mountain range under the Arctic was found in 1954 by the Arctic Institute of the USSSR. William Maurice "Doc" Ewing ( May 12 1906 &ndash May 4 1974) was an American geophysicist and oceanographer Bruce Charles Heezen ( April 11, 1924 – June 21, 1977) was an American geologist The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960 by Harry Hammond Hess. Harry Hammond Hess ( May 24, 1906 – August 25, 1969) was a Geologist and United States Navy officer in World War The Ocean Drilling Project started in 1966. Deep sea vents were discovered in 1977 by John Corlis and Robert Ballard in the submersible "Alvin". Robert Duane Ballard (born June 30, 1942 in Wichita Kansas) is an oceanographer most noted for his work in underwater Archaeology

In the 1950s Auguste Piccard invented the bathyscape and used the "Trieste" to investigate the ocean's depths. Auguste Antoine Piccard ( January 28, 1884 &ndash March 24, 1962) was a Swiss Physicist, Inventor and Explorer A bathyscape, bathyscaphe, or bathyscaph is a free-diving self-propelled deep-sea Diving Submersible, consisting of a crew cabin similar The nuclear submarine Nautilus made the first journey under the ice to the North Pole in 1958. Nautilus (from Greek ναυτίλος, 'sailor' is the common name of any marine creatures of the Cephalopod family Nautilidae, the sole In 1962 there was the first deployment of FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a 355 foot spar buoy.

Then in 1966, the U.S. Congress created a National Council for Marine Resources and Engineering Development. Year 1966 ( MCMLXVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses NOAA was put in charge of exploring and studying all aspects of Oceanography in the USA. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) is a scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the It also enabled the National Science Foundation to award Sea Grant College funding to multi-disciplinary researchers in the field of oceanography. The National Science Foundation (NSF is a United States Government agency that supports fundamental Research and Education in all the non-medical

From the 1970s there has been much emphasis on the application of large scale computers to oceanography to allow numerical predictions of ocean conditions and as a part of overall environmental change prediction. An oceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacific to allow prediction of El Niño events. El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO; commonly referred to as simply El Niño) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon

1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat seafloor mapping data became available in 1995.

In 1942 Sverdrup and Fleming published "The Ocean" which was a major landmark. "The Sea" (in three volumes covering physical oceanography, seawater and geology) edited by M. N. Hill was published in 1962 while the "Encyclopedia of Oceanography by Rhodes Fairbridge was published in 1966.

Ocean and atmosphere connections

The study of the oceans is intimately linked to understanding global warming and related biosphere concerns. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e Heat Flux or thermal flux is a flow of Energy per unit of area per unit of time Insolation is a measure of Solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) An ocean current is continuous directed movement of Ocean water. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single

“	Our planet is invested with two great oceans; one visible, the other invisible; one underfoot, the other overhead; one entirely envelopes it, the other covers about two thirds of its surface.	”
	— Matthew F. Maury (1855) The Physical Geography of the Seas and Its Meteorology

Major oceanographic institutions and programs

Main article: List of oceanographic institutions and programs

References

1. ^ Impact from the Deep; October 2006; Scientific American Magazine; by Peter D. Matthew Fontaine Maury ( January 14, 1806 &ndash February 1, 1873) USN was an American Astronomer, Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the three major subfields of Geography. Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary This is a list of Oceanographic institutions and programs. International World Ocean Circulation Experiment Undersea Research Scientific American is a Popular science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly since August 28, 1845, making it Ward; 8 Page(s)
2. ^ Tom Garrison. "Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science" 5th edition. Thomson, 2005. Page 4.

See also

• American Practical Navigator
• Anoxic event - Anoxic sea water
• Argo (oceanography)
• Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) (in the US)
• Bathymetric chart
• Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center (USA)
• Freak wave
• List of Oceanic basins
• Oceans Act of 2000
• Ocean colonization
• Oceanographic Museum - Monaco
• Sea - contains list of world's seas
• Sea level
• Sea level rise
• Marine archaeology
• Marine engineering
• Ocean engineering
• Pollution

Related disciplines

• Biogeochemistry
• Biogeography
• Coastal geography
• Hydrography
• Hydrology
• Limnology
• Meteorology
• Environmental science
• Physical geography
• Glaciology
• Geophysics

External links

• Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo
• Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) - World's largest private, nonprofit ocean research, engineering and education organization. History The most popular navigational text of the late 18th centurywas The New Practical Navigator by John Hamilton Moore. Oceanic anoxic events or Anoxic events occur when the Earth 's Oceans become completely depleted of oxygen (O2 below the surface levels Anoxic sea water is sea water depleted of Oxygen. It is generally found in areas with restricted water exchange Argo is an observation system for the Earth's oceans that provides real-time data for use in climate weather oceanographic and fisheries research The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML is a laboratory in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research A bathymetric chart is the submerged equivalent of an above-water Topographic map. The Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (or FNMOC) known prior to 1995 as the Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center (FNOC is a meteorological and Rogue waves, also known as freak waves, monster waves or extreme waves, are relatively large and spontaneous Ocean surface waves that are a threat The following is a list of Oceanic basins: Aleutian Basin Agulhus Basin Amerasian Basin, Arctic Ocean The Oceans Act of 2000 established the United States Commission on Ocean Policy, a Working group tasked with the development of what would be known as the Ocean colonization is the theory and practice of permanent human settlement of Oceans Such settlements may float on the surface of the water or be secured to The Oceanographic Museum is a museum of marine sciences in Monaco-Ville, Monaco. This article is about the body of water For other uses see SEA and Seas. Mean sea level (MSL is the average (mean height of the Sea, with reference to a suitable reference surface Sea-level rise is an increase in Sea level. Multiple complex factors may influence this change Maritime archaeology (also known as marine archaeology) is a discipline that studies human interaction with the Sea, lakes and rivers through the study of vessels Marine Engineers are the members of a ship's crew that operate and maintain the propulsion and other systems on board the vessel Ocean engineering is the branch of Engineering concerned with the design analysis and operation planning of systems that operate in an Oceanic environment Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in The field of biogeochemistry involves scientific study of the chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes and reactions Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land incorporating both the Physical geography (i Hydrography focuses on the measurement of physical characteristics of Waters and marginal land Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of Limnology (from Greek Λίμνη limne, "lake" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the division of Hydrology that studies inland Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the three major subfields of Geography. Glaciology (from Middle French dialect (Franco-Provençal glace, "ice" or Latin glacies, "frost ice" and Greek λόγος Geophysics, a major discipline of Earth sciences, is the study of the Earth by quantitative physical methods especially by seismic, electromagnetic
• Scripps Institution of Oceanography
• National Oceanography Centre, Southampton
• Ocean Explorer - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration.
• NOS Data Explorer - A portal to obtain NOAA National Ocean Service data
• NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery - A rich collection of images, video, audio and podcast.
• NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration
• NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator - Plot and download ocean data
• Exploring Marine Ecosystems - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History permanent exhibit
• Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme - Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU
• NEMO: Modeling framework for Oceanography
• Oceanographycal and Hidrobiological manuscripts The Turkish Seas
• Ocean Alliance: Conservation Biology
• Matthias Tomczak's oceanography teaching site (Open source studying material)
• Ocean World (Open source textbook)
• Pew Institute fo Ocean Science - Protecting the world's oceans and the species that inhabit them.
• Herdman, William A. - Founders of Oceanography, and their work - An introduction to the science of the sea
• Timeline of Oceanography
• Virtual Library - lists of oceanic publications, societies and conferences
• Ocean Motion and Surface Currents (NASA)
• British Oceanographic Data Centre - a source of oceanographic data and information
• Office of Naval Research

Further reading

• Steele, J. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program , K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols. ) ISBN 0-12-227430-X
• Sverdrup, Keith A. , Duxbury, Alyn C. , Duxbury, Alison B. (2006). Fundamentals of Oceanography, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0072826789.

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